Somalia
GANG INFORMATION
PROFILE
OFFICIAL NAME:
Somalia
NOTE: Somalia has been without a central government since 1991,
and much of the territory has been subject to serious civil strife.
There is no official U.S. representation in Somalia. Statistical
data on Somalia in this report date from 2002 and are subject
to dispute and error.
Geography
Area: 637,657 sq. km.; slightly smaller than Texas.
Cities: Capital--Mogadishu. Other cities--Beledweyne, Kismayo,
Baidoa, Jowhar, Merca, Gaalkayo, Bosasso, Hargeisa, Berbera.
Terrain: Mostly flat to undulating plateau rising to hills in
the north.
Climate: Principally desert; December to February--northeast monsoon,
moderate temperatures in north, and very hot in the south; May
to October--southwest monsoon, torrid in the north, and hot in
the south; irregular rainfall; hot and humid periods (tangambili)
between monsoons.
People
Nationality: Noun--Somali(s). Adjective--Somali.
Population (2002 est., no census exists): 9.6 million (of which
an estimated 2-3 million in Somaliland).
Annual growth rate (2001 est.): 3.48%.
Ethnic groups: Somali, with a small non-Somali minority (mostly
Bantu and Arabs).
Religion: 99.9% Muslim.
Languages: Somali (official), Arabic, Italian, English.
Education: Literacy--total population that can read and write,
24%: male 36%; female 14%.
Health: Infant mortality rate--123.97/1,000 live births. Life
expectancy at birth--total population: 46.6 yrs.
Work force (3.7 million; very few are skilled workers): Pastoral
nomad--60%. Agriculture, government, trading, fishing, industry,
handicrafts, and other--40%.
Government
Type: None.
Independence: July 1, 1960 (from a merger of the former Somaliland
Protectorate under British rule, which became independent from
the UK on June 26, 1960, and Italian Somaliland, which became
independent from the Italian-administered UN trusteeship on July
1, 1960 to form the Somali Republic).
Constitution: None in force. Note: A Transitional Federal Charter
was established in February 2004 and is expected to serve as the
basis for a future constitution in Somalia. In August 2004, the
Somali Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA) was established as
part of the IGAD-led Somalia National Reconciliation Conference
in accordance with the Charter. The Somalia National Reconciliation
Conference concluded following the election of a Transitional
President in October 2004.
Branches: Executive--Somalia has had no functioning national government
since the collapse of the regime of Maj. Gen. Mohamed Siad Barre
in January 1991. The present political situation in much of Somalia
is marked by inter-clan fighting and random banditry, with some
areas of peace and stability. On October 10, 2004, Abdullahi Yusuf
Ahmed was elected Transitional Federal President of Somalia for
a five-year period. A Prime Minister, Ali Mohamed Gedi was approved
by the Transitional Federal Assembly on December 24, 2004. A cabinet,
consisting of 90 ministers and deputy ministers, was appointed
in January 2005. Legislative--parliamentary (Transitional Federal
Assembly, established in August 2004. Shariff Hassan Sheikh Adan
was elected Speaker of the Assembly in September 2004.) Judicial--Supreme
Court: not functioning; no nationwide system; Islamic (shari’a)
and traditional secular courts in some localities.
Political party: None functioning. Legal system: none functioning.
Note: In 1991 a congress drawn from the inhabitants of the former
Somaliland Protectorate declared withdrawal from the 1960 union
with Somalia to form the self-declared Republic of Somaliland.
Somaliland has not received international recognition, but has
maintained a de jure separate status since that time. Its form
of government is republican, with a bicameral legislature including
an elected elders chamber and a house of representatives. The
judiciary is independent, and various political parties exist.
In line with the Somaliland Constitution, Vice President Dahir
Riyale Kahin assumed the presidency following the death of former
president Mohamed Ibrahim Egal in 2002. Kahin was elected President
of Somaliland in elections determined to be free and fair by international
observers in May 2003. Elections for the 84-member lower house
of parliament took place on September 29, 2005 and were described
as transparent and credible by international observers.
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal (no nationwide elections).
Administrative subdivisions: 18 regions (plural--NA; singular--Gobolka).
Awdal, Bakool, Banaadir, Bari, Bay, Galguduud, Gedo, Hiraan, Jubbada
Dhexe, Jubbada Hoose, Mudug, Nugaal, Sanaag, Shabeellaha Dhexe,
Shabeellah Hoose, Sool, Togdheer, Woqooyi Galbeed.
Central government budget: N/A.
Defense: N/A.
National holiday: July 1 (June 26 in Somaliland).
Economy
GDP (2001 est.): U.S. $900 million.
Annual growth rate (2001 est.): 5.4%.
Per capita income: N/A.
Avg. inflation rate (2001 est.): 6.0%.
Natural resources: Largely unexploited reserves of iron ore, tin,
gypsum, bauxite, uranium, copper, and salt; likely petroleum and
natural gas reserves.
Agriculture: Products--livestock, bananas, corn, sorghum, sugar.
Arable land--13%, of which 2% is cultivated.
Industry: Types--Telecommunications, livestock, fishing, textiles,
transportation, and limited financial services. Somalia’s
surprisingly innovative private sector has continued to function
despite the lack of a functioning central government since 1991.
Trade (1999): Exports--$110 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.): livestock,
bananas, hides and skins, sugar, sorghum, corn. Major markets--Saudi
Arabia, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, Italy, Pakistan. Imports--$314
million (f.o.b., 1999 est.): food grains, animal and vegetable
oils, petroleum products, construction materials. Major suppliers--Djibouti,
Kenya, Brazil, Saudi Arabia, India.
Aid disbursed (2002): $174.4 million. Primary donors--European
Union, United States, Australia, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, Finland,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland,
United Kingdom, World Bank.
Remittances (2005 est.): $800 million to $1 billion.
GEOGRAPHY
Somalia is located on the east coast of Africa on and north of
the Equator and, with Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Kenya,
is often referred to as the Horn of Africa. It comprises Italy's
former Trust Territory of Somalia and the former British Protectorate
of Somaliland (now seeking recognition as an independent state).
The coastline extends 2,720 kilometers (1,700 mi.).
The northern part of the country is hilly, and in many places
the altitude ranges between 900 and 2,100 meters (3,000 ft.-7,000
ft.) above sea level. The central and southern areas are flat,
with an average altitude of less than 180 meters (600 ft.). The
Juba and the Shabelle Rivers rise in Ethiopia and flow south across
the country toward the Indian Ocean. The Shabelle, however, does
not reach the sea.
Major climatic factors are a year-round hot climate, seasonal
monsoon winds, and irregular rainfall with recurring droughts.
Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 30oC to 40oC (85o F-105oF),
except at higher elevations and along the east coast. Mean daily
minimums usually vary from about 15oC to 30oC (60oF-85oF). The
southwest monsoon, a sea breeze, makes the period from about May
to October the mildest season in Somalia. The December-February
period of the northeast monsoon also is relatively mild, although
prevailing climatic conditions in Somalia are rarely pleasant.
The "tangambili" periods that intervene between the
two monsoons (October-November and March-May) are hot and humid.
PEOPLE
The Cushitic populations of the Somali Coast in the Horn of Africa
have an ancient history. Known by ancient Arabs as the Berberi,
archaeological evidence indicates their presence in the Horn of
Africa by A.D. 100 and possibly earlier. As early as the seventh
century A.D., the indigenous Cushitic peoples began to mingle
with Arab and Persian traders who had settled along the coast.
Interaction over the centuries led to the emergence of a Somali
culture bound by common traditions, a single language, and the
Islamic faith.
Today, about 60% of all Somalis are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists
who raise cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. About 25% of the population
are settled farmers who live mainly in the fertile agricultural
zone between the Juba and Shabelle Rivers in southern Somalia.
The remainder of the population (15%-20%) is urban.
Sizable ethnic groups in the country include Bantu agricultural
workers, several thousand Arabs and some hundreds of Indians and
Pakistanis. Nearly all inhabitants speak the Somali language,
which remained unwritten until October 1973, when the Supreme
Revolutionary Council (SRC) proclaimed it the nation's official
language and decreed an orthography using Latin letters. Somali
is now the language of instruction in schools, although Arabic,
English, and Italian also are used extensively.
HISTORY
Early history traces the development of the Somali state to an
Arab sultanate, which was founded in the seventh century A.D.
by Koreishite immigrants from Yemen. During the 15th and 16th
centuries, Portuguese traders landed in present Somali territory
and ruled several coastal towns. The sultan of Oman and Zanzibar
subsequently took control of these towns and their surrounding
territory.
Somalia's modern history began in the late 19th century, when
various European powers began to trade and establish themselves
in the area. The British East India Company's desire for unrestricted
harbor facilities led to the conclusion of treaties with the sultan
of Tajura as early as 1840. It was not until 1886, however, that
the British gained control over northern Somalia through treaties
with various Somali chiefs who were guaranteed British protection.
British objectives centered on safeguarding trade links to the
east and securing local sources of food and provisions for its
coaling station in Aden. The boundary between Ethiopia and British
Somaliland was established in 1897 through treaty negotiations
between British negotiators and King Menelik.
During the first two decades of this century, British rule was
challenged through persistent attacks by a dervish rebellion led
by Mohamed Abdullah, known as the "Mad Mullah" by the
British. A long series of intermittent engagements and truces
ended in 1920 when British warplanes bombed Abdullah's stronghold
at Taleex. Although Abdullah was defeated as much by rival Somali
factions as by British forces, he was lauded as a popular hero
and stands as a major figure of national identity to many Somalis.
In 1885, Italy obtained commercial advantages in the area from
the sultan of Zanzibar and in 1889 concluded agreements with the
sultans of Obbia and Aluula, who placed their territories under
Italy's protection. Between 1897 and 1908, Italy made agreements
with the Ethiopians and the British that marked out the boundaries
of Italian Somaliland. The Italian Government assumed direct administration,
giving the territory colonial status.
Italian occupation gradually extended inland. In 1924, the Jubaland
Province of Kenya, including the town and port of Kismayo, was
ceded to Italy by the United Kingdom. The subjugation and occupation
of the independent sultanates of Obbia and Mijertein, begun in
1925, were completed in 1927. In the late 1920s, Italian and Somali
influence expanded into the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia.
Continuing incursions climaxed in 1935 when Italian forces launched
an offensive that led to the capture of Addis Ababa and the Italian
annexation of Ethiopia in 1936.
Following Italy's declaration of war on the United Kingdom in
June 1940, Italian troops overran British Somaliland and drove
out the British garrison. In 1941, British forces began operations
against the Italian East African Empire and quickly brought the
greater part of Italian Somaliland under British control. From
1941 to 1950, while Somalia was under British military administration,
transition toward self-government was begun through the establishment
of local courts, planning committees, and the Protectorate Advisory
Council. In 1948 Britain turned the Ogaden and neighboring Somali
territories over to Ethiopia.
In Article 23 of the 1947 peace treaty, Italy renounced all rights
and titles to Italian Somaliland. In accordance with treaty stipulations,
on September 15, 1948, the Four Powers referred the question of
disposal of former Italian colonies to the UN General Assembly.
On November 21, 1949, the General Assembly adopted a resolution
recommending that Italian Somaliland be placed under an international
trusteeship system for 10 years, with Italy as the administering
authority, followed by independence for Italian Somaliland. In
1959, at the request of the Somali Government, the UN General
Assembly advanced the date of independence from December 2 to
July 1, 1960.
Meanwhile, rapid progress toward self-government was being made
in British Somaliland. Elections for the Legislative Assembly
were held in February 1960, and one of the first acts of the new
legislature was to request that the United Kingdom grant the area
independence so that it could be united with Italian Somaliland
when the latter became independent. The protectorate became independent
on June 26, 1960; five days later, on July 1, it joined Italian
Somaliland to form the Somali Republic.
In June 1961, Somalia adopted its first national constitution
in a countrywide referendum, which provided for a democratic state
with a parliamentary form of government based on European models.
During the early post-independence period, political parties were
a fluid concept, with one-person political parties forming before
an election, only to defect to the winning party following the
election. A constitutional conference in Mogadishu in April 1960,
which made the system of government in the southern Somali trust
territory the basis for the future government structure of the
Somali Republic, resulted in the concentration of political power
in the former Italian Somalia capital of Mogadishu and a southern-dominated
central government, with most key government positions occupied
by southern Somalis, producing increased disenchantment with the
union in the former British-controlled north. Pan-Somali nationalism,
with the goal of uniting the Somali-populated regions of French
Somaliland (Djibouti), Kenya and Ethiopia into a Greater Somalia,
remained the driving political ideology in the initial post-independence
period. Under the leadership of Mohamed Ibrahim Egal (prime minister
from 1967 to 1969), however, Somalia renounced its claims to the
Somali-populated regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, greatly improving
its relations with both countries. Egal attempted a similar approach
with Ethiopia, but the move towards reconciliation with Ethiopia,
which had been a traditional enemy of Somalia since the 16th century,
made many Somalis furious, including the army. Egal’s reconciliation
effort toward Ethiopia is argued to be one of the principal factors
that provoked a bloodless coup on October 21, 1969 and subsequent
installation of Maj. Gen. Mohamed Siad Barre as president, bringing
an abrupt end to the process of party-based constitutional democracy
in Somalia.
Following the coup, executive and legislative power was vested
in the 20-member Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), headed by
Barre. The SRC pursued a course of "scientific socialism"
that reflected both ideological and economic dependence on the
Soviet Union. The government instituted a national security service,
centralized control over information, and initiated a number of
grassroots development projects. Barre reduced political freedoms
and used military force to seize and redistribute rich farmlands
in the interriverine areas of southern Somalia, relying on the
use of force and terror against the Somali population to consolidate
his political power base.
The SRC became increasingly radical in foreign affairs, and in
1974, Somalia and the Soviet Union concluded a treaty of friendship
and cooperation. As early as 1972, tensions began increasing along
the Somali-Ethiopian border; these tensions heightened after the
accession to power in Ethiopia in 1973 of the Mengistu Haile Mariam
regime, which turned increasingly toward the Soviet Union. In
the mid-1970s, the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) began
guerrilla operations in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia. Following
the overthrow of the Ethiopian Emperor in 1975, Somalia invaded
Ethiopia in 1977 in a second attempt to regain the Ogaden, and
the second attempt initially appeared to be in Somalia’s
favor. The SNA moved quickly toward Harer, Jijiga, and Dire Dawa,
the principal cities of the region. However, following the Ethiopian
revolution, the new Ethiopian government shifted its alliance
from the West to the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Union supplied
Ethiopia with 10,000-15,000 Cuban troops and Soviet military advisors
during the 1977-78 Ogaden war, shifting the advantage to Ethiopia
and resulting in Somalia’s defeat. In November 1977, Barre
expelled all Soviet advisers and abrogated the friendship agreement
with the U.S.S.R. In March 1978, Somali forces retreated into
Somalia; however, the WSLF continued to carry out sporadic but
greatly reduced guerrilla activity in the Ogaden. Such activities
also were subsequently undertaken by another dissident group,
the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).
Following the 1977-1978 Ogaden war, desperate to find a strong
external alliance to replace the Soviet Union, Somalia abandoned
its Socialist ideology and turned to the West for international
support, military equipment, and economic aid. In 1978, the United
States reopened the U.S. Agency for International Development
mission in Somalia. Two years later, an agreement was concluded
that gave U.S. forces access to military facilities at the port
of Berbera in northwestern Somalia. In the summer of 1982, Ethiopian
forces invaded Somalia along the central border, and the United
States provided two emergency airlifts to help Somalia defend
its territorial integrity. From 1982 to 1988, the United States
viewed Somalia as a partner in defense in the context of the Cold
War. Somali officers of the National Armed Forces were trained
in U.S. military schools in civilian as well as military subjects.
Following the Ogaden war, the Barre regime violently suppressed
opposition movements and ethnic groups, particularly the Issaq
clan in the northern region, using the military and elite security
forces to quash any hint of rebellion. By the 1980s, an all-out
civil war developed in Somalia. Opposition groups began to form
following the end of the Ogaden war, beginning in 1979 with a
group of dissatisfied army officers known as the Somali Salvation
Democratic Front (SSDF). In 1981, as a result of increased northern
discontent with the Barre regime, the Somali National Movement
(SNM), composed mainly of the Issaq clan, was formed in Hargeisa
with the stated goal of overthrowing of the Barre regime. In January
1989, the United Somali Congress (USC), an opposition group of
Somalis from the Hawiye clan, was formed as a political movement
in Rome. A military wing of the USC was formed in Ethiopia in
late 1989 under the leadership of Mohamed Farah “Aideed,”
a former political prisoner imprisoned by Barre from 1969-75.
Aideed exploited his Ethiopian support to form alliances with
other opposition groups, including the SNM and the Somali Patriotic
Movement (SPM), an Ogadeen sub-clan force under Colonel Ahmed
Omar Jess in the Bakool and Bay regions of Southern Somalia. In
1988, at the President's order, aircraft from the Somali National
Air Force bombed the city of Hargeisa in northwestern Somalia,
the former capital of British Somaliland, killing nearly 10,000
civilians and insurgents. The warfare in the northwest sped up
the decay already evident elsewhere in the republic. Economic
crisis, brought on by the cost of anti-insurgency activities,
caused further hardship as Siad Barre and his cronies looted the
national treasury.
By the end of the 1980s, armed opposition to Barre’s government,
fully operational in the northern regions, had spread to the central
and southern regions. Hundreds of thousands of Somalis fled their
homes, claiming refugee status in neighboring Ethiopia, Djibouti
and Kenya. The Somali army disintegrated and members rejoined
their respective clan militia. Barre’s effective territorial
control was reduced to the immediate areas surrounding Mogadishu,
earning Barre the title "Mayor of Mogadishu" and resulting
in the withdrawal of external assistance and support, including
from the United States. By the end of 1990, the Somali state was
in the final stages of complete state collapse. In the first week
of December 1990, Barre declared a state of emergency as USC and
SNM forces advanced toward Mogadishu. Barre began to lose control
over his own militia groups and became increasingly isolated.
In January 1991, armed opposition factions drove Barre out of
power, resulting in the complete collapse of the central government.
Barre later died in exile in Nigeria. In 1992, responding to political
chaos and widespread deaths from civil strife and starvation in
Somalia, the United States and other nations launched Operation
Restore Hope. Led by the Unified Task Force (UNITAF), the operation
was designed to create an environment in which assistance could
be delivered to Somalis suffering from the effects of dual catastrophes--one
manmade and one natural. UNITAF was followed by the United Nations
Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM). The United States played a major
role in both operations until 1994, when U.S. forces withdrew.
After the attack on the United States of September 11, 2001,
Somalia gained greater international attention as a possible entrepot
for international terrorism--a concern that became the primary
element in U.S. policy toward Somalia. The United States and other
members of the anti-terrorism coalition examined a variety of
short- and long-term measures designed to address the threat of
terrorism in and emanating from Somalia. The United Nations also
took an increased interest in Somalia, including proposals for
an increased UN presence and for strengthening a 1992 arms embargo.
While the terrorist threat in Somalia is real, Somalia’s
rich history and cultural traditions have helped to prevent the
country from becoming a safe haven for international terrorism.
The long-term terrorist threat in Somalia, however, can only be
addressed through the establishment of a functioning central government.
GOVERNMENT
Somalia has no national government at present; however, a two-year
reconciliation process led by the Inter-governmental Authority
on Development (IGAD) concluded in 2004 following the formation
of a transitional government, the components of which are known
as the Somalia Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs). The TFIs
include a transitional parliament, known as the Transitional Federal
Assembly (formed in August 2004), as well as a Transitional Federal
Government (TFG) that includes a transitional President, Prime
Minister, and 90-member cabinet known as the "Council of
Ministers." For administrative purposes, Somalia is divided
into 18 regions; the nature, authority, and structure of regional
governments vary, where they exist.
Principal Government Officials
Somalia has no functioning central government at present; however,
Shariff Hassan Sheikh Adan was elected as Speaker of the Assembly
in September 2004, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed was elected as Transitional
Federal President of Somalia in October 2004, and Ali Mohamed
Gedi was approved by the Transitional Federal Assembly as Prime
Minister on December 24, 2004. A cabinet was formed in January
2005. While most members of the transitional government have relocated
to Somalia, the Transitional Federal Institutions have yet to
establish authority inside Somalia.
The self-declared “Republic of Somaliland” consists
of a regional authority based in the city of Hargeisa, including
a President, Vice President, parliament, and cabinet officials.
Other Ministers N/A
Ambassador to the United States--N/A
Permanent Representative to the United Nations--Dr. Elmi Ahmed
Duale
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
In the wake of the collapse of the Somali Government, factions
organized around military leaders took control of Somalia. The
resulting chaos and loss of life promoted the international intervention
led by the United States, UNITAF. That operation was followed
by the United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM), which ended
in 1994. Since 1991, there have been fourteen efforts at national
reconciliation. Various groupings of Somali factions have sought
to control the national territory (or portions thereof) and have
fought small wars with one another. Dahir Riyale Kahin was elected
President of the self-declared "Republic of Somaliland,"
which is made up of the former northwest provinces of the Somali
republic, in presidential elections deemed free and fair by international
observers in May 2003. In 1998, the area of Puntland in the northeast
declared itself autonomous (although not independent) as the "State
of Puntland" with its capital at Garowe. Puntland declared
it would remain autonomous until a federated Somalia state was
established.
Efforts at mediation of the Somali internal dispute have been
undertaken by many regional states. In the mid-1990s, Ethiopia
played host to several Somali peace conferences and initiated
talks at the Ethiopian city of Sodere, which led to some degree
of agreement between competing factions. The Governments of Egypt,
Yemen, Kenya, and Italy also have attempted to bring the Somali
factions together. In 1997, the Organization of African Unity
and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) gave
Ethiopia the mandate to pursue Somali reconciliation. In 2000,
Djibouti hosted a major reconciliation conference (the 13th such
effort), which in August resulted in creation of the Transitional
National Government (TNG), whose 3-year mandate expired in August
2003. In early 2002, Kenya organized a further reconciliation
effort under IGAD auspices known as the Somalia National Reconciliation
Conference, which concluded in October 2004. In August 2004, the
Somali Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA) was established as
part of the IGAD-led process, with Shariff Hassan Sheik Adan as
its Speaker. Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed was elected Transitional Federal
President of Somalia on October 10, 2004 and Ali Mohamed Gedi
was approved by the Transitional Federal Assembly as Prime Minister
on December 24, 2004 as part of the continued formation of a Transitional
Federal Government (TFG). A cabinet was formed in January 2005.
The absence of a central government in Somalia since 1991 has
allowed outside forces to become more influential by supporting
various groups and persons in Somalia, particularly Djibouti,
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Egypt, Yemen, and Libya, all of which have
supported various Somali factions and transitional governments.
ECONOMY
Somalia lacks natural resources and faces major development challenges,
and recent economic reverses have left its people increasingly
dependent on remittances from abroad. Its economy is pastoral
and agricultural, with livestock--principally camels, cattle,
sheep, and goats--representing the main form of wealth. Livestock
exports in recent years have been severely reduced by periodic
bans, ostensibly for concerns of animal health, by Arabian Peninsula
states. Drought has also impaired agricultural and livestock production.
Because rainfall is scanty and irregular, farming generally is
limited to certain coastal districts, areas near Hargeisa, and
the Juba and Shabelle River valleys. The agricultural sector of
the economy consists mainly of banana plantations located in the
south, which has used modern irrigation systems and up-to-date
farm machinery.
A small fishing industry has begun in the north where tuna, shark,
and other warm-water fish are caught, although fishing production
is seriously affected by poaching and the lack of ability to grant
concessions because of the absence of a functioning central government.
Aromatic woods--frankincense and myrrh--from a small and diminishing
forest also contribute to the country's exports. Minerals, including
uranium and likely deposits of petroleum and natural gas, are
found throughout the country, but have not been exploited commercially.
Petroleum exploration efforts, at one time under way, have ceased
due to insecurity and instability. Illegal production in the south
of charcoal for export has led to widespread deforestation. With
the help of foreign aid, small industries such as textiles, handicrafts,
meat processing, and printing are being established.
The absence of central government authority, as well as profiteering
from counterfeiting, has rapidly debased Somalia’s currency.
By the spring of 2002, the Somali shilling had fallen to over
30,000 shillings to the U.S. dollar. The self-declared Republic
of Somaliland issues its own currency, the Somaliland shilling,
which is not accepted outside of the self-declared republic.
There are no railways in Somalia; internal transportation is
by truck and bus. The national road system nominally comprises
22,100 kilometers (13,702 mi.) of roads that include about 2,600
kilometers (1,612 mi.) of all-weather roads, although most roads
have received little maintenance for years and have seriously
deteriorated.
Air transportation is provided by small air charter firms and
craft used by drug smugglers. A number of airlines operate from
Hargeisa. Some private airlines, including Daallo Airlines, serve
several domestic locations as well as Djibouti and the United
Arab Emirates. The UN and other NGOs operate air service for their
missions.
The European Community and the World Bank jointly financed construction
of a deepwater port at Mogadishu (currently closed). The Soviet
Union improved Somalia's deepwater port at Berbera in 1969. Facilities
at Berbera were further improved by a U.S. military construction
program completed in 1985, but they have since become dilapidated.
During the 1990s the United States renovated a deepwater port
at Kismayo that serves the fertile Juba River basin and is vital
to Somalia's banana export industry. Smaller ports are located
at Merca, Brava, and Bossaso. Absence of security and lack of
maintenance and improvement are major issues at most Somali ports.
Radiotelephone service is available to both to regional and international
locations. The public telecommunications system has been destroyed
or dismantled, but cellular phone service is readily available
throughout the country. Somalia is linked to the outside world
via ship-to-shore communications (INMARSAT) as well as links to
overseas satellite operators by private telecommunications operators
(including cellular telephone systems) in major towns. Radio broadcasting
stations operate at Mogadishu, Hargeisa, and Galkaiyo, with programs
in Somali and some other languages. There are two television broadcast
stations in Mogadishu and one in Hargeisa.
DEFENSE
There are no Somali armed forces. Before the collapse of the Siad
Barre regime and dissolution of the national armed forces in 1991,
the Somali National Army was made up of the army, navy, air force,
and air defense command. Various groups and factions throughout
Somalia currently control militias ranging in strength from hundreds
to thousands. These militias are in general poorly trained and
lightly armed, although some groups possess limited inventories
of older armored vehicles and other heavy weapons and small arms
are prevalent throughout Somalia.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Somalia followed a foreign policy of nonalignment for a brief
period following independence. In 1970, the Siad Barre regime
declared a national ideology based on scientific Socialism and
aligned its foreign policy with the Soviet Union and China. In
the 1980s, Somalia shifted its alignment to the West following
a territorial conflict with Ethiopia over the disputed Somali-populated
region of the Ogaden from 1977-78, which was supported by the
Soviet Union. The central government also sought ties with many
Arab countries, and continued to receive financial and military
support from several Arab countries prior to its collapse in 1991.
Five countries, including Saudi Arabia, Libya and Egypt, extended
recognition to the now-defunct Transitional National Government
and continue to provide assistance to Somalia.
The status of expatriate Somalis has been an important foreign
and domestic issue. The Somali-populated region of the Horn of
Africa stretches from the Gulf of Tadjoura in modern-day Djibouti
through Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, and down to the coastal regions of
southern Kenya. Unlike many countries in Africa, the Somali nation
extends beyond its national borders. Since gaining independence
in 1960, the goal of Somali nationalism, also known as Pan-Somalism,
has been the unification of all Somali populations, forming a
Greater Somalia. This issue has been a major cause of past crises
between Somalia and its neighbors--Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti.
In 1963, Somalia severed diplomatic relations with the United
Kingdom for a period following a dispute over Kenya's northeastern
region (Northern Frontier District), an area inhabited mainly
by Somalis. Related problems have arisen from the boundary with
Ethiopia and the large-scale migrations of Somali nomads between
Ethiopia and Somalia.
In the aftermath of the 1977-78 Somali-Ethiopian war, the Government
of Somalia continued to call for self-determination for ethnic
Somalis living in the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia. At the
March 1983 Nonaligned Movement summit in New Delhi, President
Siad Barre stated that Somalia harbored no expansionist aims and
was willing to negotiate with Ethiopia over the disputed Ogaden
region.
Since the fall of the Barre regime, the foreign policy of the
various entities in Somalia has centered on gaining international
recognition, winning international support for national reconciliation,
and obtaining international economic assistance.
U.S.-SOMALI RELATIONS
Although the U.S. never formally severed diplomatic relations
with Somalia, official relations were interrupted by the fall
of the government and have not been fully reestablished in the
continued absence of a national government. The United States
maintains informal contacts with a number of entities in Somalia.
Principal U.S. Officials
Ambassador--N/A
The U.S. Embassy has been closed since 1991. U.S. contacts with
Somalia, including consular coverage, are maintained by U.S. Embassy
Nairobi, Kenya.
TRAVEL AND BUSINESS INFORMATION
The U.S. Department of State's Consular Information Program provides
Consular Information Sheets, Travel Warnings, and Public Announcements.
Consular Information Sheets exist for all countries and include
information on entry requirements, currency regulations, health
conditions, areas of instability, crime and security, political
disturbances, and the addresses of the U.S. posts in the country.
Travel Warnings are issued when the State Department recommends
that Americans avoid travel to a certain country. Public Announcements
are issued as a means to disseminate information quickly about
terrorist threats and other relatively short-term conditions overseas
that pose significant risks to the security of American travelers.
Free copies of this information are available by calling the Bureau
of Consular Affairs at 202-647-5225 or via the fax-on-demand system:
202-647-3000. Consular Information Sheets and Travel Warnings
also are available on the Consular Affairs Internet home page:
http://travel.state.gov. Consular Affairs Tips for Travelers publication
series, which contain information on obtaining passports and planning
a safe trip abroad, are on the Internet and hard copies can be
purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, telephone: 202-512-1800; fax 202-512-2250.
Emergency information concerning Americans traveling abroad may
be obtained from the Office of Overseas Citizens Services at (202)
647-5225. For after-hours emergencies, Sundays and holidays, call
202-647-4000.
The National Passport Information Center (NPIC) is the U.S. Department
of State's single, centralized public contact center for U.S.
passport information. Telephone: 1-877-4USA-PPT (1-877-487-2778).
Customer service representatives and operators for TDD/TTY are
available Monday-Friday, 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m., Eastern Time,
excluding federal holidays.
Travelers can check the latest health information with the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia.
A hotline at 877-FYI-TRIP (877-394-8747) and a web site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/index.htm
give the most recent health advisories, immunization recommendations
or requirements, and advice on food and drinking water safety
for regions and countries. A booklet entitled Health Information
for International Travel (HHS publication number CDC-95-8280)
is available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC 20402, tel. (202) 512-1800.
Information on travel conditions, visa requirements, currency
and customs regulations, legal holidays, and other items of interest
to travelers also may be obtained before your departure from a
country's embassy and/or consulates in the U.S. (for this country,
see "Principal Government Officials" listing in this
publication).
U.S. citizens who are long-term visitors or traveling in dangerous
areas are encouraged to register their travel via the State Department’s
travel registration web site at https://travelregistration.state.gov
or at the Consular section of the U.S. embassy upon arrival in
a country by filling out a short form and sending in a copy of
their passports. This may help family members contact you in case
of an emergency.
Further Electronic Information
Department of State Web Site. Available on the Internet at http://www.state.gov,
the Department of State web site provides timely, global access
to official U.S. foreign policy information, including Background
Notes and daily press briefings along with the directory of key
officers of Foreign Service posts and more.
Export.gov provides a portal to all export-related assistance
and market information offered by the federal government and provides
trade leads, free export counseling, help with the export process,
and more.
STAT-USA/Internet, a service of the U.S. Department of Commerce,
provides authoritative economic, business, and international trade
information from the Federal government. The site includes current
and historical trade-related releases, international market research,
trade opportunities, and country analysis and provides access
to the National Trade Data Bank.
