Sudan
GANG INFORMATION
PROFILE
OFFICIAL NAME:
Republic of the Sudan
Geography
Area: 2.5 million sq. km. (967,500 sq. mi.); the largest country
in Africa and almost the size of continental U.S. east of the
Mississippi River.
Cities: Capital--Khartoum (pop. 1.4 million). Other cities--Omdurman
(2.1 million), Port Sudan (pop. 450,000), Kassala, Kosti, Juba
(capital of southern region).
Land boundaries: Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, and Uganda.
Terrain: Generally flat with mountains in east and west. Khartoum
is situated at the confluence of the Blue and White Nile Rivers.
The southern regions are inundated during the annual floods of
the Nile River system (the Suud or swamps).
Climate: Desert and savanna in the north and central regions and
tropical in the south.
People
Nationality: Noun and adjective (sing. and pl.)--Sudanese.
Population (2005 est.): 40.2 million; 30%-33% urban.
Annual growth rate (2004 est.): 2.6%.
Ethnic groups: Arab/Muslim north and black African/Christian and
animist south.
Religions: Islam (official), indigenous beliefs (southern Sudan),
Christianity.
Languages: Arabic (official), English, tribal languages.
Education: Years compulsory--8. Attendance--35%-40%. Literacy--61%.
Health: Infant mortality rate--64/1,000. Life expectancy--58.5
yrs.
Work force: Agriculture--80%; industry and commerce--7%; government--13%.
Government
Independence: January 1, 1956.
Type: Provisional Government established by the Comprehensive
Peace Agreement signed in January 2005 that provides for power
sharing with the former southern rebels on a 70-30 basis pending
national elections during the mid-2007 to mid-2008 time frame.
Constitution: The Interim National Constitution was adopted on
July 6, 2005. It was drafted by the National Constitutional Review
Commission, as mandated by the January 2005 Comprehensive Peace
Agreement (CPA). The Government of Southern Sudan also has a constitution
adopted in December 2005; it was certified by the Ministry of
Justice to be in conformance with the Interim National Constitution
and the Comprehensive Peace Agreement.
Branches: Executive--executive authority is held by the president,
who also is the prime minister, head of state, head of government,
and commander in chief of the armed forces; effective July 9,
2005, the executive branch includes a first vice president and
a vice president. As stipulated by the Comprehensive Peace Agreement,
the first vice president position is held by a person selected
by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement. Legislative--National
Assembly. The National Assembly, the upper house, has 450 members
with a ratio of 70/30 (70% northern, 30% southern.) There is also
a lower house, the Council of States, which is composed of two
representatives from each of the nation's 26 states, including
two observers from Abyei. Judicial--High Court, Minister of Justice,
Attorney General, civil and special tribunals.
Administrative subdivisions: Twenty-six states, each with a governor
appointed by the president, along with a state cabinet and a state
legislative assembly.
Political parties: Currently there are several political parties
in both the nation's north and south. All political parties were
banned following the June 30, 1989 military coup. Political associations,
which take the place of parties, were authorized in 2000. Some
parties are in self-imposed exile.
Central government budget (2004 est.): $7.6 billion.
Defense (2004 est.): 40% of GNP.
Economy
GDP (2004): $19 billion.
GDP annual growth rate (2004): 6.4%.
Per capita income GDP (2004): $490.
Avg. annual inflation rate: 9.0%.
Natural resources: Modest reserves of oil, natural gas, gold,
iron ore, copper, and other industrial metals.
Agriculture (39% of GNP): Products--cotton, peanuts, sorghum,
sesame seeds, gum arabic, sugarcane, millet, livestock.
Industry: Types--motor vehicle assembly, cement, cotton, edible
oils and sugar refining.
Trade (2004 est.): Exports--$2.0 billion: crude oil and petroleum
products, cotton, gold, sorghum, peanuts, gum arabic, sugar, meat,
hides, live animals, and sesame seeds. Major markets--Egypt, Persian
Gulf states, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, China, South Korea. Imports--$2.6
billion: oil and petroleum products, oil pipeline, pumping and
refining equipment, chemical products and equipment, wheat and
wheat flour, transport equipment, foodstuffs, tea, agricultural
inputs and machinery, industrial inputs and manufactured goods.
Major suppliers--European Union, China, Malaysia, Canada, U.K.,
Italy, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, the Persian Gulf states,
and surrounding East African nations.
Fiscal year: January 1-December 31.
PEOPLE
Sudan’s population is one of the most diverse on the African
continent. There are two distinct major cultures--"Arab"
and black African--with hundreds of ethnic and tribal subdivisions
and language groups, which make effective collaboration among
them a major political challenge.
The northern states cover most of the Sudan and include most
of the urban centers. Most of the 22 million Sudanese who live
in this region are Arabic-speaking Muslims, though the majority
also uses a non-Arabic mother tongue--e.g., Nubian, Beja, Fur,
Nuban, Ingessana, etc. Among these are several distinct tribal
groups: the Kababish of northern Kordofan, a camel-raising people;
the Ja’alin and Shaigiyya groups of settled tribes along
the rivers; the semi-nomadic Baggara of Kordofan and Darfur; the
Hamitic Beja in the Red Sea area and Nubians of the northern Nile
areas, some of whom have been resettled on the Atbara River; and
the Negroid Nuba of southern Kordofan and Fur in the western reaches
of the country.
The southern region has a population of around 6 million and
a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. Except for a ten-year
hiatus, southern Sudan has been embroiled in conflict, resulting
in major destruction and displacement since independence. More
than 2 million people have died, and more than 4 million are internally
displaced or have become refugees as a result of the civil war
and war-related impacts. The southern Sudanese practice mainly
indigenous traditional beliefs, although Christian missionaries
have converted some. The south also contains many tribal groups
and many more languages than are used in the north. The Dinka--whose
population is estimated at more than 1 million--is the largest
of the many black African tribes of the Sudan. Along with the
Shilluk and the Nuer, they are among the Nilotic tribes. The Azande,
Bor, and Jo Luo are "Sudanic" tribes in the west, and
the Acholi and Lotuhu live in the extreme south, extending into
Uganda.
In 2005, Sudan’s population reached an estimated 40.2 million.
A new census is planned for 2007. The population of metropolitan
Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and North Khartoum) is
growing rapidly and ranges from 6-7 million, including around
2 million internally displaced persons from the former southern
war zone as well as western and eastern regions affected by drought,
conflict, and marginalization. In Darfur, there are an estimated
1.8 million internally displaced persons and another 220,000 refugees
in neighboring Chad--200,000 in 12 camps and 20,000 in the border
area.
HISTORY
Sudan was a collection of small, independent kingdoms and principalities
from the beginning of the Christian era until 1820-21, when Egypt
conquered and unified the northern portion of the country. However,
neither the Egyptian nor the Mahdist state (1883-1898) had any
effective control of the southern region outside of a few garrisons.
Southern Sudan remained an area of fragmented tribes, subject
to frequent attacks by slave raiders.
In 1881, a religious leader named Muhammad ibn Abdalla proclaimed
himself the Mahdi, or the "expected one," and began
a religious crusade to unify the tribes in western and central
Sudan. His followers took on the name "Ansars" (the
followers) which they continue to use today and are associated
with the single largest political grouping, the Umma Party, led
by a descendant of the Mahdi, Sadiq al Mahdi.
Taking advantage of dissatisfaction resulting from Ottoman-Egyptian
exploitation and maladministration, the Mahdi led a nationalist
revolt culminating in the fall of Khartoum in 1885. The Mahdi
died shortly thereafter, but his state survived until overwhelmed
by an invading Anglo-Egyptian force under Lord Kitchener in 1898.
While nominally administered jointly by Egypt and Britain, Britain
exercised control, formulated policies, and supplied most of the
top administrators.
Independence
In February 1953, the United Kingdom and Egypt concluded an agreement
providing for Sudanese self-government and self-determination.
The transitional period toward independence began with the inauguration
of the first parliament in 1954. With the consent of the British
and Egyptian Governments, Sudan achieved independence on January
1, 1956, under a provisional constitution. This constitution was
silent on two crucial issues for southern leaders - the secular
or Islamic character of the state and its federal or unitary structure.
However, the Arab-led Khartoum government reneged on promises
to southerners to create a federal system, which led to a mutiny
by southern army officers that launched 17 years of civil war
(1955-72).
Sudan has been at war with itself for more than three quarters
of its existence. This protracted conflict was rooted in the cultural
and religious divides that characterize the country. Northerners
who have traditionally controlled the country have sought to unify
it along the lines of Arabism and Islam despite the opposition
of non-Muslims, southerners, and marginalized peoples in the west
and east.
Since independence, Sudan has experienced almost constant ethnic
and religious strife that has penetrated all the states bordering
it. These countries have provided shelter to fleeing refugees
or have served as operating bases for rebel movements. The civil
strife has retarded Sudan’s economic and political development
as well as forced massive internal displacement of its people.
In 1958, General Ibrahim Abboud seized power and pursued a policy
of Arabization and Islamization in the south that strengthened
southern opposition. General Abboud was overthrown in 1964 and
a civilian caretaker government assumed control. Southern leaders
eventually divided into two factions, those who advocated a federal
solution and those who argued for self-determination, a euphemism
for secession since it was assumed the south would vote for independence
if given the choice.
Until 1969, there was a succession of governments that proved
unable either to agree on a permanent constitution or to cope
with problems of factionalism, economic stagnation, and ethnic
dissidence. These regimes were dominated by "Arab" Muslims
who asserted their Arab-Islamic agenda and refused any kind of
self-determination for southern Sudan.
In May 1969, a group of communist and socialist officers led
by Colonel Gaafar Muhammad Nimeiri, seized power. A month after
coming to power, Nimeiri proclaimed socialism (instead of Islamism)
for the country and outlined a policy of granting autonomy to
the south. Numeiri in turn was the target of a coup attempt by
communist members of the government. It failed and Numeiri ordered
a massive purge of communists. This alienated the Soviet Union,
which withdrew its support.
Already lacking support from the Muslim parties he had chased
from power, Nimeiri could no longer count on the communist faction.
Having alienated the right and the left, Nimeiri turned to the
south as a way of expanding his limited powerbase. He pursued
peace initiatives with Sudan’s hostile neighbors, Ethiopia
and Uganda, signing agreements that committed each signatory to
withdraw support for the other’s rebel movements. He then
initiated negotiations with the southern rebels and signed an
agreement in Addis Ababa in 1972 that granted a measure of autonomy
to the south. Southern support helped him put down two coup attempts,
one initiated by officers from the western regions of Darfur and
Kordofan who wanted for their region the same privileges granted
to the south.
However, the Addis Ababa Agreement had no support from either
the secularist or Islamic northern parties. Nimeiri concluded
that their lack of support was more threatening to his regime
than lack of support from the south so he announced a policy of
national reconciliation with all the religious opposition forces.
These parties did not feel bound to observe an agreement they
perceived as an obstacle to furthering an Islamist state. The
scales against the peace agreement were tipped in 1979 when Chevron
discovered oil in the south. Northern pressure built to abrogate
those provisions of the peace treaty granting financial autonomy
to the south. Ultimately in 1983, Nimeiri abolished the southern
region, declared Arabic the official language of the south (instead
of English) and transferred control of southern armed forces to
the central government. This was effectively a unilateral abrogation
of the 1972 peace treaty. The second Sudan civil war effectively
began in January 1983 when southern soldiers mutinied rather than
follow orders transferring them to the north.
In September 1983, as part of an Islamicization campaign, President
Nimeiri announced that traditional Islamic punishments drawn from
Shari’a (Islamic Law) would be incorporated into the penal
code. This was controversial even among Muslim groups. Amputations
for theft and public lashings for alcohol possession became common.
Southerners and other non-Muslims living in the north were also
subjected to these punishments.
In April 1985, while out of the country, Nimeiri was overthrown
by a popular uprising in Khartoum provoked by a collapsing economy,
the war in the south, and political repression. Gen. Suwar al-Dahab
headed the transitional government. One of its first acts was
to suspend the 1983 constitution and disband Nimeiri’s Sudan
Socialist Union.
Elections were held in April 1986, and a civilian government
took over after the April 1986 elections. There were tentative
moves towards negotiating peace with the south. However, any proposal
to exempt the south from Islamic law was unacceptable to those
who supported Arabic supremacy. In 1989, an Islamic army faction,
led by General Umar al-Bashir mounted a coup and installed the
National Islamic Front. The new government’s commitment
to the Islamic cause intensified the north-south conflict.
Meanwhile, the period of the 1990s saw a growing sense of alienation
in the western and eastern regions of Sudan from the Arab center.
The rulers in Khartoum were seen as less and less responsive to
the concerns and grievances of both Muslim and non-Muslim populations
across the country. Alienation from the "Arab" center
caused various groups to grow sympathetic to the southern rebels
led by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A),
and in some cases, prompted them to flight alongside it.
The Bashir government combined internal political repression
with international Islamist activism. It supported radical Islamist
groups in Algeria and supported Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait.
Khartoum was established as a base for militant Islamist groups:
radical movements and terrorist organizations like Osama Bin Laden’s
al Qaida were provided a safe haven and logistical aid in return
for financial support. In 1996, the U.N. imposed sanctions on
Sudan for alleged connections to the assassination attempt on
Egyptian President Mubarak.
Its policy toward the south was to pursue the war against the
rebels while trying to manipulate them by highlighting tribal
divisions. Ultimately, this policy resulted in the rebels’
uniting under the leadership of Colonel John Garang. During this
period, the rebels also enjoyed support from Ethiopia, Eritrea,
and Uganda. The Bashir Government’s "Pan-Islamic"
foreign policy, which provided support for neighboring radical
Islamist groups, was partly responsible for this support for the
rebels.
The 1990s saw a succession of regional efforts to broker an end
to the Sudanese civil war. Beginning in 1993, the leaders of Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya pursued a peace initiative for the
Sudan under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority for
Development (IGAD), but results were mixed. Despite that record,
the IGAD initiative promulgated the 1994 Declaration of Principles
(DOP) that aimed to identify the essential elements necessary
to a just and comprehensive peace settlement; i.e., the relationship
between religion and the state, power sharing, wealth sharing,
and the right of self-determination for the south. The Sudanese
Government did not sign the DOP until 1997 after major battlefield
losses to the SPLA. That year, the Khartoum government signed
a series of agreements with rebel factions under the banner of
"Peace from Within." These included the Khartoum, Nuba
Mountains, and Fashoda Agreements that ended military conflict
between the government and significant rebel factions. Many of
those leaders then moved to Khartoum where they assumed marginal
roles in the central government or collaborated with the government
in military engagements against the SPLA. These three agreements
paralleled the terms and conditions of the IGAD agreement, calling
for a degree of autonomy for the south and the right of self-determination.
However, by mid-2001, prospects for peace in Sudan appeared fairly
remote. A few days before the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks
in New York and Washington, the Bush Administration named former
Senator John Danforth as its Presidential Envoy for Peace in the
Sudan. His role was to explore the prospects that the U.S. could
play a useful role in the search for a just end to the civil war,
and enhance the delivery of humanitarian aid to reduce the suffering
of the Sudanese people stemming from the effects of civil war.
The terrorist attacks of September 11 dramatically impacted the
bilateral relationship between the United States and the Khartoum
Government. (For "U.S.-Sudanese Relations," see below.)
End to the Civil War
In July 2002, the Government of Sudan and the SPLM/A reached a
historic agreement on the role of state and religion and the right
of southern Sudan to self-determination. This agreement, known
as the Machakos Protocol and named after the town in Kenya where
the peace talks were held, concluded the first round of talks
sponsored by the IGAD. The effort was mediated by retired Kenyan
General Lazaro Sumbeiywo. Peace talks resumed and continued during
2003, with discussions regarding wealth sharing and three contested
areas.
On November 19, 2004, the Government of Sudan and the SPLM/A
signed a declaration committing themselves to conclude a final
comprehensive peace agreement by December 31, 2004, in the context
of an extraordinary session of the United Nations Security Council
(UNSC) in Nairobi, Kenya--only the fifth time the Council has
met outside of New York since its founding. At this session, the
UNSC unanimously adopted Resolution 1574, which welcomed the commitment
of the government and the SPLM/A to achieve agreement by the end
of 2004, and underscored the international community’s intention
to assist the Sudanese people and support implementation of the
comprehensive peace agreement. It also demanded that the Government
of Sudan and the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) and the
Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) halt all violence in Darfur.
In keeping with their commitment to the UNSC, the Government
of Sudan and the SPLM/A initialed the final elements of the comprehensive
agreement on December 31, 2004. The two parties formally signed
the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) on January 9, 2005. The
U.S. and the international community have welcomed this decisive
step forward for peace in Sudan.
The historic agreement provides for a ceasefire, withdrawal of
troops from southern Sudan, and the repatriation and resettlement
of refugees. It also stipulates that by the end of the five-year
interim period, during which the various provisions of the CPA
are implemented, there will be national elections based on the
one-man, one-vote principle for president, state governors, and
national and state legislatures.
Darfur
However, while the historic north-south conflict was on its way
to resolution, a rebellion broke out in Darfur, in western Sudan,
in 2003, led by two rebel groups--the SLM/A and the JEM. These
groups represented agrarian farmers who are non-Arabized black
African Muslims. In seeking to defeat the rebel movements, the
Government of Sudan armed and supported local tribal and other
militias, which have come to be known as the "Janjaweed."
Their members were composed of black African Muslims who herded
cattle, camels, and other livestock. Attacks on the civilian population
by the Janjaweed, often with the direct support of Government
of Sudan forces, have led to the death of tens of thousands of
persons in Darfur, with an estimated 1.8 million internally displaced
persons and another 220,000 refugees in neighboring Chad, i.e.,
200,000 in 12 camps and 20,000 in the border area
On September 9, 2004, Secretary of State Colin L. Powell told
the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, "genocide has been
committed in Darfur and that the Government of Sudan and the Janjaweed
bear responsibility--and that genocide may still be occurring."
President Bush echoed this in July 2005, when he stated that the
situation in Darfur was "clearly genocide."
A cease-fire between the parties was signed in N’Djamena,
Chad, on April 8, 2004. However, despite the deployment of an
African Union Military Mission to monitor implementation of the
cease-fire and investigate violations, violence has continued.
The SLM/A and JEM have continued negotiations with the Government
of Sudan under African Union auspices. These talks resulted in
additional protocols on addressing the humanitarian and security
aspects of the conflict on November 9, 2004. Like previous agreements,
these have been violated by both sides. Talks resumed in Abuja
on June 10, 2005, resulting in a July 6 signing of a Declaration
of Principles. Further talks were held in the fall and early winter
of 2005 and covered power sharing, wealth sharing, and security
arrangements. These negotiations have been complicated by a split
in SLM/A leadership.
The African Union, with the support of the UNSC, the U.S., and
the rest of the international community, began deploying a larger
monitoring and observer force in October 2004. The UNSC had passed
three resolutions (1556, 1564, and 1574), all intended to move
the Government of Sudan to rein in the Janjaweed, protect the
civilian population and humanitarian participants, seek avenues
toward a political settlement to the humanitarian and political
crisis, and recognize the need for the rapid deployment of an
expanded African Union mission in Darfur. The U.S. has been a
leader in pressing for strong international action by the United
Nations and its agencies.
A series of UNSC resolutions in late March 2005 underscored the
concerns of the international community regarding Sudan's continuing
conflicts. Resolution 1590 of March 24 established the UN Mission
in Sudan (UNMIS) for an initial period of six months and decided
that UNMIS would consist of up to 10,000 military personnel and
up to 715 civilian police personnel. It requested UNMIS to coordinate
with the African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) to foster peace
in Darfur, support implementation of the CPA, facilitate the voluntary
return of refugees and internally displaced persons, provide humanitarian
demining assistance, and protect human rights. The resolution
also called on the Government of Sudan and rebel groups to resume
the Abuja talks and support a peaceful settlement to the conflict
in Darfur, including ensuring safe access for peacekeeping and
humanitarian operations.
Resolution 1591 of March 29 criticized the Government of Sudan
and rebels in Darfur for having failed to comply with several
previous UNSC resolutions, for ceasefire violations, and for human
rights abuses. The resolution also calls on all parties to resume
the Abuja talks and to support a peaceful settlement to the conflict
in Darfur; it also forms a monitoring committee charged with enforcing
a travel ban and asset freeze of those determined to impede the
peace process, or violate human rights. The resolution additionally
demanded that the Government of Sudan cease conducting offensive
military flights in and over the Darfur region.
Finally, Resolution 1593 referred the situation in Darfur to
the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) and called
on the Government of Sudan and all other parties to the conflict
in Darfur to cooperate with the ICC.
While large-scale conflict in Darfur has diminished, attacks
on humanitarian operations increased and inter-tribal warfare
has increased making the delivery of humanitarian aid far more
hazardous. Overall international assistance levels reached more
than $1.3 billion after the UN's September 2003 appeal; principal
implementing agencies included the World Food Program (WFP), UNHCR,
UNICEF, and various non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Prior to the 2005 CPA, Sudan had an authoritarian government in
which all effective political power was in the hands of President
Omar Hassan al-Bashir. Bashir and his party have controlled the
government since he led the military coup in 1989.
The CPA, signed on January 9, 2005, provides for a new constitution,
and new arrangements for power sharing, wealth sharing, and security
applicable throughout the country. New institutions were created
following the July 9, 2005 installation of the Presidency, wherein
SPLM Chairman John Garang became the First Vice President. Thereafter,
a new Government of National Unity and a sub-national Government
of Southern Sudan were established in September and October 2005,
respectively. In April 2005, the National Constitution Review
Commission convened to draft the Interim National Constitution,
which was ratified on July 6, 2005. The Constitution declares
Sudan to be a "democratic, decentralized, multi-cultural,
multi-ethnic, multi-religious, and multi-lingual State."
Other provisions of the CPA implemented to date include the formation
of the National Assembly authorizing formation of Joint Defense
Board and Joint Integrated Units; appointment of Cabinet members
and signing of the Southern Sudan constitution; establishment
of the Assessment and Evaluation Commission, National Petroleum
Commission, Fiscal and Financial Allocation and Monitoring Commission,
and Technical ad hoc Border Committee; members of the National
Democratic Alliance (NDA) identified and sworn in to participate
in the GNU as Ministers of Science & Technology, General Education,
and State Minister of Agriculture and Forestry; and an increasing
numbers of people returning to the South.
On July 30, 2005, the charismatic and revered SPLM leader John
Garang died unexpectedly when the helicopter returning him to
the Sudan after a meeting with Uganda’s president crashed.
The SPLM immediately named Salva Kiir as his successor and he
replaced Garang as First Vice President a few days later.
Principal Government Officials
President, Prime Minister, and Commander in Chief of the Armed
Forces--Lt. Gen. Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir
First Vice President--Salva Kiir
Vice President--Ali Osman Muhamad Taha
Foreign Minister--Lam Akol
Ambassador to the U.S.--vacant (Khidir Haroun Ahmed, Charge d’Affaires,
a.i.)
Ambassador to the UN--vacant (Omar Bashir Mohamed Manis, Charge
d’Affaires, a.i.)
Sudan maintains an embassy in the United States at 2210 Massachusetts
Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel: (202) 338-8565; fax: (202)
667-2406).
ECONOMY
In 2004, the cessation of major north-south hostilities and expanding
crude oil exports resulted in 6.4% GDP growth and a near doubling
of GDP per capita since 2003. The aftereffects of the 21-year
civil war and very limited infrastructure, however, present obstacles
to stronger growth and a broader distribution of income. The country
continued taking some steps toward transitioning from a socialist
to a market-based economy, although the government and governing
party supporters remained heavily involved in the economy.
Sudan’s primary resources are agricultural, but oil production
and export are taking on greater importance since October 2000.
Although the country is trying to diversify its cash crops, cotton,
and gum arabic remain its major agricultural exports. Grain sorghum
(dura) is the principal food crop, and millet and wheat are grown
for domestic consumption. Sesame seeds and peanuts are cultivated
for domestic consumption and increasingly for export. Livestock
production has vast potential, and many animals, particularly
camels and sheep, are exported to Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and other
Arab countries. However, Sudan remains a net importer of food.
Problems of irrigation and transportation remain the greatest
constraints to a more dynamic agricultural economy.
The country’s transportation facilities consist of one
4,800-kilometer (2,748-miles), single-track railroad with a feeder
line, supplemented by limited river steamers, Sudan Airways, and
about 1,900 kilometers (1,200 miles) of paved and gravel road--primarily
in greater Khartoum, Port Sudan, and the north. Some north-south
roads that serve the oil fields of central/south Sudan have been
built; and a 1,400 kilometer. (840 miles) oil pipeline goes from
the oil fields via the Nuba Mountains and Khartoum to the oil
export terminal in Port Sudan on the Red Sea.
Sudan’s limited industrial development consists of agricultural
processing and various light industries located in Khartoum North.
In recent years, the GIAD industrial complex introduced the assembly
of small autos and trucks, and some heavy military equipment such
as armored personnel carriers and the proposed "Bashir"
main battle tank. Although Sudan is reputed to have great mineral
resources, exploration has been quite limited, and the country’s
real potential is unknown. Small quantities of asbestos, chromium,
and mica are exploited commercially.
Extensive petroleum exploration began in the mid-1970s and might
cover all of Sudan’s economic and energy needs. Significant
finds were made in the Upper Nile region and commercial quantities
of oil began to be exported in October 2000, reducing Sudan’s
outflow of foreign exchange for imported petroleum products. There
are indications of significant potential reserves of oil and natural
gas in southern Sudan, the Kordofan region and the Red Sea province.
Sudan is seeking to expand its installed capacity of electrical
generation of around 300 megawatts--of which 180 megawatts is
hydroelectric and the rest, thermal. Considering the continuing
U.S. economic, trade, and financial sanctions regime, European
investors are the most likely providers of technology for this
purpose. More than 70% of Sudan’s hydropower comes from
the Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile grid. Various projects are proposed
to expand hydropower, thermal generation, and other sources of
energy, but so far the government has had difficulty arranging
sufficient financing.
The Merowe dam project has received a boost from various Arab
funds. The Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development donated
$150 million, the Abu Dhabi Development Fund $100 million, the
Kuwaiti Development Fund $150 million, and the Saudi Fund $150
million. The Sultanate of Oman may finance the dam power plant
with $106 million. The Merowe dam, if built, would have a capacity
of 1,250 megawatts. It would be built at the Nile’s fourth
cataract. Egypt has not voiced major objections on the issue of
Nile water diversion, which Sudan’s hydroelectric project
would entail. The estimated total cost of the dam is $1.8 billion.
Historically, the U.S., the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Saudi
Arabia, Kuwait, and other Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) have supplied most of Sudan’s economic
assistance. Sudan’s role as an economic link between Arab
and African countries is reflected by the presence in Khartoum
of the Arab Bank for African Development. The World Bank had been
the largest source of development loans.
Sudan will require extraordinary levels of program assistance
and debt relief to manage a foreign debt exceeding $21 billion,
more than the country’s entire annual gross domestic product.
During the late 1970s and 1980s, the International Monetary Fund
(IMF), World Bank, and key donors worked closely to promote reforms
to counter the effect of inefficient economic policies and practices.
By 1984, a combination of factors--including drought, inflation,
and confused application of Islamic law--reduced donor disbursements,
and capital flight led to a serious foreign-exchange crisis and
increased shortages of imported inputs and commodities. More significantly,
the 1989 revolution caused many donors in Europe, the U.S., and
Canada to suspend official development assistance, but not humanitarian
aid.
However, as Sudan became the world’s largest debtor to
the World Bank and IMF by 1993, its relationship with the international
financial institutions soured in the mid-1990s and has yet to
be fully rehabilitated. The government fell out of compliance
with an IMF standby program and accumulated substantial arrearages
on repurchase obligations. A 4-year economic reform plan was announced
in 1988 but was not pursued. An economic reform plan was announced
in 1989 and implementation began on a 3-year economic restructuring
program designed to reduce the public sector deficit, end subsidies,
privatize state enterprises, and encourage new foreign and domestic
investment. In 1993, the IMF suspended Sudan’s voting rights
and the World Bank suspended Sudan’s right to make withdrawals
under effective and fully disbursed loans and credits. Lome Funds
and European Union agricultural credits, totaling more than 1
billion euros, also were suspended.
Sudan produces about 312,000 barrels per day (b/d) of oil, which
brought in about $1.9 billion in 2003 and provides 70% of the
country’s total export earnings. Although final figures
are not yet available, these earnings may have risen to an estimated
$2 billion as of the end of 2004. The oil production is expected
to reach 500,000 barrels by 2005. With a resolution of its 21-year
civil war, Sudan and its people can now begin to reap the benefit
from its natural resources, rebuild its infrastructure, increase
oil production and exports, and be able to attain its export and
development potential.
In 2000-2001, Sudan’s current account entered surplus for
the first time since independence. In 1993, currency controls
were imposed, making it illegal to possess foreign exchange without
approval. In 1999, liberalization of foreign exchange markets
ameliorated this constraint somewhat. Exports other than oil are
largely stagnant. The small industrial sector remains in the doldrums,
and Sudan’s inadequate and declining infrastructure inhibits
economic growth.
DEFENSE
The Sudan People’s Armed Forces is a 100,000-member army
supported by a small air force and navy. Irregular tribal and
former rebel militias and Popular Defense Forces supplement the
army’s strength in the field. This is a mixed force, having
the additional duty of maintaining internal security. Some rebels
currently fighting in the south are former army members. During
the 1990s, periodic purges of the professional officer corps by
the ruling Islamist regime eroded command authority as well as
war-fighting capabilities. Indeed, the Sudanese Government admitted
it was incapable of carrying out its war aims against the SPLA
and NDA without employing former rebel and Arab militias to fight
in support of regular troops.
Sudan’s military forces have historically been hampered
by limited and outdated equipment. In the 1980s, the U.S. worked
with the Sudanese Government to upgrade equipment with special
emphasis on airlift capacity and logistics. All U.S. military
assistance was terminated following the military coup of 1989.
Oil revenues have allowed the government to purchase modern weapons
systems, including Hind helicopter gunships, Anatov medium bombers,
MiG 23 fighter aircraft, mobile artillery pieces, and light assault
weapons. Sudan now receives most of its military equipment from
China, Russia, and Libya.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Solidarity with other Arab countries has been a feature of Sudan’s
foreign policy. When the Arab-Israeli war began in June 1967,
Sudan declared war on Israel. However, in the early 1970s, Sudan
gradually shifted its stance and was supportive of the Camp David
Accords.
Relations between Sudan and Libya deteriorated in the early 1970s
and reached a low in October 1981, when Libya began a policy of
crossborder raids into western Sudan. After the 1985 coup in Sudan,
the military government resumed diplomatic relations with Libya,
as part of a policy of improving relations with neighboring and
Arab states. In early 1990, Libya and the Sudan announced that
they would seek "unity, but this unity was not implemented.
During the 1990s, as Sudan sought to steer a nonaligned course,
courting Western aid and seeking rapprochement with Arab states,
its relations with the U.S. grew increasingly strained. Sudan’s
ties with countries like North Korea and Libya and its support
for regional insurgencies such as Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Eritrean
Islamic Jihad, Ethiopian Islamic Jihad, Palestinian Islamic Jihad,
Hamas, Hizbullah, and the Lord’s Resistance Army generated
great concern about its contribution to regional instability.
Allegations of the government’s complicity in the assassination
attempt against the Egyptian President in Ethiopia in 1995 led
to UNSC sanctions against the Sudan. By the late 1990s, Sudan
experienced strained or broken diplomatic relations with most
of its nine neighboring countries. However, since 2000, Sudan
has actively sought regional rapprochement that has rehabilitated
most of these relations.
U.S.-SUDANESE RELATIONS
Although Sudan is on the U.S. Government's state sponsors of terrorism
list, the United States is a major donor of humanitarian aid to
Sudan, and the U.S. has welcomed steps toward peace in the country.
The U.S. and the international community welcomed the January
9, 2005 signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), while
a series of UN Security Council resolutions in late March 2005
underscored concerns about Sudan's continuing conflicts. The U.S.
has been a leader in pressing for strong international action
by the United Nations and its agencies in Darfur. (For more, see
"End to the Civil War" and "Darfur," above.)
A Review of Relations
Sudan broke diplomatic relations with the U.S. in June 1967, following
the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli War. Relations improved after
July 1971, when the Sudanese Communist Party attempted to overthrow
President Nimeiri, and Nimeiri suspected Soviet involvement. U.S.
assistance for resettlement of refugees following the 1972 peace
settlement with the south added further improved relations.
On March 1, 1973, Palestinian terrorists of the "Black September"
organization murdered U.S. Ambassador Cleo A. Noel and Deputy
Chief of Mission Curtis G. Moore in Khartoum. Sudanese officials
arrested the terrorists and tried them on murder charges. In June
1974, however, they were released to the custody of the Egyptian
Government. The U.S. Ambassador to the Sudan was withdrawn in
protest. Although the U.S. Ambassador returned to Khartoum in
November, relations with the Sudan remained static until early
1976, when President Nimeiri mediated the release of 10 American
hostages being held by Eritrean insurgents in rebel strongholds
in northern Ethiopia. In 1976, the U.S. decided to resume economic
assistance to the Sudan.
In late 1985, there was a reduction in staff at the U.S. Embassy
in Khartoum because of the presence in Khartoum of a large contingent
of Libyan terrorists. In April 1986, relations with Sudan deteriorated
when the U.S. bombed Tripoli, Libya. A U.S. Embassy employee was
shot on April 16, 1986. Immediately following this incident, all
non-essential personnel and all dependents left for six months.
At this time, Sudan was the single largest recipient of U.S. development
and military assistance in sub-Saharan Africa. However, official
U.S. development assistance was suspended in 1989 in the wake
of the military coup against the elected government, which brought
to power the National Islamist Front led by General Bashir.
U.S. relations with Sudan were further strained in the 1990s.
Sudan backed Iraq in its invasion of Kuwait and provided sanctuary
and assistance to Islamic terrorist groups. In the early and mid-1990s,
Carlos the Jackal, Osama bin Laden, Abu Nidal, and other terrorist
leaders resided in Khartoum. Sudan’s role in the radical
Pan-Arab Islamic Conference represented a matter of great concern
to the security of American officials and dependents in Khartoum,
resulting in several drawdowns and/or evacuations of U.S. personnel
from Khartoum in the early-mid 1990s. Sudan’s Islamist links
with international terrorist organizations represented a special
matter of concern for the U.S. Government, leading to Sudan's
1993 designation as a state sponsor of terrorism and a suspension
of U.S. Embassy operations in Khartoum in 1996. In October 1997,
the U.S. imposed comprehensive economic, trade, and financial
sanctions against the Sudan. In August 1998, in the wake of the
East Africa embassy bombings, the U.S. launched retaliatory cruise
missile strikes against Khartoum. The last U.S. Ambassador to
the Sudan, Ambassador Tim Carney, departed post prior to this
event and no new ambassador has been designated since. The U.S.
Embassy is headed by a charge d’affaires.
The U.S. and Sudan entered into a bilateral dialogue on counter-terrorism
in May 2000, and Sudan has provided concrete cooperation against
international terrorism since the September 11, 2001, terrorism
strikes on New York and Washington. However, though Sudan publicly
supported the international coalition actions against the al Qaida
network and the Taliban in Afghanistan, the government criticized
the U.S. strikes in that country and opposed a widening of the
effort against international terrorism to other countries. Sudan
remains on the state sponsors of terrorism list.
Throughout the last quarter century, the U.S., despite policy
differences with Sudan, has been a major donor of humanitarian
aid to the Sudan. The U.S. was a major donor in the March 1989
"Operation Lifeline Sudan," which delivered 100,000
metric tons of food into both government and SPLA-held areas of
the Sudan, thus averting widespread starvation. In 1991, the U.S.
again made major donations to alleviate food shortages caused
by a two-year drought. In a similar drought in 2000-01, the U.S.
and the international community again responded to avert mass
starvation in the Sudan. In 2001 the Bush Administration named
a Presidential Envoy for Peace in the Sudan to explore what role
the U.S. could play in ending Sudan's civil war and enhancing
the delivery of humanitarian aid. For fiscal years 2003-2005,
the U.S. Government committed almost $2 billion to Sudan for humanitarian
assistance and peacekeeping in Darfur as well as support for implementation
of the peace accord and reconstruction and development in southern
Sudan.
Principal U.S. Officials
Ambassador--vacant
Charge d'Affaires--Cameron Hume
Deputy Chief of Mission--Andrew Steinfeld
USAID Director--Catherine Farnsworth
Political-Economic Chief--Eric Whitaker
Public Affairs Officer--Katherine Moseley
The U.S. Embassy in Sudan is located at Shari’a Ali Abdul
Latif, P.O. Box 699, Khartoum (tel. 249-11-774-700; 774-704).
Hours are 8 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Sunday through Thursday.
TRAVEL AND BUSINESS INFORMATION
The U.S. Department of State's Consular Information Program provides
Consular Information Sheets, Travel Warnings, and Public Announcements.
Consular Information Sheets exist for all countries and include
information on entry requirements, currency regulations, health
conditions, areas of instability, crime and security, political
disturbances, and the addresses of the U.S. posts in the country.
Travel Warnings are issued when the State Department recommends
that Americans avoid travel to a certain country. Public Announcements
are issued as a means to disseminate information quickly about
terrorist threats and other relatively short-term conditions overseas
that pose significant risks to the security of American travelers.
Free copies of this information are available by calling the Bureau
of Consular Affairs at 202-647-5225 or via the fax-on-demand system:
202-647-3000. Consular Information Sheets and Travel Warnings
also are available on the Consular Affairs Internet home page:
http://travel.state.gov. Consular Affairs Tips for Travelers publication
series, which contain information on obtaining passports and planning
a safe trip abroad, are on the Internet and hard copies can be
purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, telephone: 202-512-1800; fax 202-512-2250.
Emergency information concerning Americans traveling abroad may
be obtained from the Office of Overseas Citizens Services at (202)
647-5225. For after-hours emergencies, Sundays and holidays, call
202-647-4000.
The National Passport Information Center (NPIC) is the U.S. Department
of State's single, centralized public contact center for U.S.
passport information. Telephone: 1-877-4USA-PPT (1-877-487-2778).
Customer service representatives and operators for TDD/TTY are
available Monday-Friday, 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m., Eastern Time,
excluding federal holidays.
Travelers can check the latest health information with the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia.
A hotline at 877-FYI-TRIP (877-394-8747) and a web site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/index.htm
give the most recent health advisories, immunization recommendations
or requirements, and advice on food and drinking water safety
for regions and countries. A booklet entitled Health Information
for International Travel (HHS publication number CDC-95-8280)
is available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC 20402, tel. (202) 512-1800.
Information on travel conditions, visa requirements, currency
and customs regulations, legal holidays, and other items of interest
to travelers also may be obtained before your departure from a
country's embassy and/or consulates in the U.S. (for this country,
see "Principal Government Officials" listing in this
publication).
U.S. citizens who are long-term visitors or traveling in dangerous
areas are encouraged to register their travel via the State Department’s
travel registration web site at https://travelregistration.state.gov
or at the Consular section of the U.S. embassy upon arrival in
a country by filling out a short form and sending in a copy of
their passports. This may help family members contact you in case
of an emergency.
Further Electronic Information
Department of State Web Site. Available on the Internet at http://www.state.gov,
the Department of State web site provides timely, global access
to official U.S. foreign policy information, including Background
Notes and daily press briefings along with the directory of key
officers of Foreign Service posts and more.
Export.gov provides a portal to all export-related assistance
and market information offered by the federal government and provides
trade leads, free export counseling, help with the export process,
and more.
STAT-USA/Internet, a service of the U.S. Department of Commerce,
provides authoritative economic, business, and international trade
information from the Federal government. The site includes current
and historical trade-related releases, international market research,
trade opportunities, and country analysis and provides access
to the National Trade Data Bank.
