Syria
GANG INFORMATION
PROFILE
OFFICIAL NAME:
Syrian Arab Republic
Geography
Area: 185,170 sq. km. (71,504 sq. mi.), including 1,295 sq. km.
of Israeli-occupied territory; about the size of North Dakota.
Cities: Capital--Damascus (pop. 5 million). Other cities--Aleppo
(4.5 million), Homs (1.8 million), Hama (1.6 million), Lattakia
(1 million), Idleb (1.2 million), al-Hasakeh (1.3 million).
Terrain: Narrow coastal plain with a double mountain belt in the
west; large, semiarid and desert plateau to the east.
Climate: Mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August)
and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast.
People
Nationality: Noun and adjective--Syrian(s).
Population (July 2003 est.): 18.2 million.
Growth rate (2004 est.): 2.58%.
Major ethnic groups: Arabs (90%), Kurds (9%), Armenians, Circassians,
Turkomans.
Religions: Sunni Muslims (74%), Alawis (12%), Christians (10%),
Druze (3%), and small numbers of other Muslim sects, Jews, and
Yazidis.
Languages: Arabic (official), English and French (widely understood),
Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian.
Education: Years compulsory--primary, 6 yrs. Attendance--98.7%.
Literacy--89.7% male, 64% female.
Health (2002 est.): Infant mortality rate--23/1,000. Life expectancy--68.47
yrs. male, 71.02 yrs. female.
Work force (5.5 million, 2002 est.): Services (including government)--39.7%;
agriculture--30.3%; industry and commerce--30%.
Government
Type: Republic, under Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party regimes since
March 1963.
Independence: April 17, 1946.
Constitution: March 13, 1973.
Branches: Executive--president, two vice presidents, prime minister,
Council of Ministers (cabinet). Legislative--unicameral People's
Council. Judicial--Supreme Constitutional Court, High Judicial
Council, Court of Cassation, State Security Courts.
Administrative subdivisions: 13 provinces and city of Damascus
(administered as a separate unit).
Political parties: Arab Socialist Resurrection (Ba'ath) Party,
Syrian Arab Socialist Party, Arab Socialist Union, Syrian Communist
Party, Arab Socialist Unionist Movement, Democratic Socialist
Union Party.
Suffrage: Universal at 18.
Economy (2004 est.)
GDP: $22.2 billion (at current prices).
Real growth rate: 1.7%.
Per capita GDP: $1,155.
Natural resources: Crude oil and natural gas, phosphates, asphalt,
rock salt, marble, gypsum, iron ore, chrome and manganese ores
Agriculture: Products--cotton, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruits
and vegetables. Arable land--32%.
Industry: Types--mining, manufacturing (textiles, food processing),
construction, petroleum.
Trade: Exports--$4.980 billion: petroleum, textiles, phosphates,
antiquities, fruits and vegetables, cotton. Major markets--EU,
Arab countries, U.S., New Independent States, Eastern Europe.
Imports--$6.550 billion: foodstuffs, metal and metal products,
machinery, textiles, petroleum. Major suppliers--Germany, Turkey,
Italy, France, U.S., Japan.
PEOPLE
Ethnic Syrians are of Semitic stock. Syria's population is 90%
Muslim--74% Sunni, and 16% other Muslim groups, including the
Alawi, Shi'a, and Druze--and 10% Christian. There also is a tiny
Syrian Jewish community.
Arabic is the official, and most widely spoken, language. Arabs,
including some 400,000 Palestinian refugees, make up 90% of the
population. Many educated Syrians also speak English or French,
but English is the more widely understood. The Kurds, many of
whom speak Kurdish, make up 9% of the population and live mostly
in the northeast corner of Syria, though sizable Kurdish communities
live in most major Syrian cities as well. Armenian and Turkic
are spoken among the small Armenian and Turkoman populations.
Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the
coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and
the desert. Overall population density is about 140 per sq. mi.
Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 11. Schooling
consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year
general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or
vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training
is required for university admission. Total enrollment at post-secondary
schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15
and older is 78% for males and 51% for females.
Ancient Syria's cultural and artistic achievements and contributions
are many. Archaeologists have discovered extensive writings and
evidence of a brilliant culture rivaling those of Mesopotamia
and Egypt in and around the ancient city of Ebla. Later Syrian
scholars and artists contributed to Hellenistic and Roman thought
and culture. Zeno of Sidon founded the Epicurean school; Cicero
was a pupil of Antiochus of Ascalon at Athens; and the writings
of Posidonius of Apamea influenced Livy and Plutarch. Syrians
have contributed to Arabic literature and music and have a proud
tradition of oral and written poetry. Although declining, the
world-famous handicraft industry still employs thousands.
HISTORY
Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the center of
one of the most ancient civilizations on earth. Around the excavated
city of Ebla in northern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic
empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia
from 2500 to 2400 B.C. The city of Ebla alone during that time
had a population estimated at 260,000. Scholars believe the language
of Ebla to be the oldest Semitic language.
Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, Hebrews,
Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Nabataeans,
Byzantines, and, in part, Crusaders before finally coming under
the control of the Ottoman Turks. Syria is significant in the
history of Christianity; Paul was converted on the road to Damascus
and established the first organized Christian Church at Antioch
in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary
journeys.
Damascus, settled about 2500 B.C., is one of the oldest continuously
inhabited cities in the world. It came under Muslim rule in A.D.
636. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached
its peak, and it became the capital of the Omayyad Empire, which
extended from Spain to India from A.D. 661 to A.D. 750, when the
Abbasid caliphate was established at Baghdad, Iraq.
Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around
1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol
conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt,
it continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell
under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years,
except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832
to 1840.
French Occupation
In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established
under King Faysal of the Hashemite family, who later became King
of Iraq. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months,
following the clash between his Syrian Arab forces and regular
French forces at the battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied
Syria later that year after the League of Nations put Syria under
French mandate. With the fall of France in 1940, Syria came under
the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free
French occupied the country in July 1941. Continuing pressure
from Syrian nationalist groups forced the French to evacuate their
troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican
government that had been formed during the mandate.
Independence to 1970
Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of
independence of April 17, 1946, Syrian politics from independence
through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval. A series of military
coups, begun in 1949, undermined civilian rule and led to army
colonel Adib Shishakli's seizure of power in 1951. After the overthrow
of President Shishakli in a 1954 coup, continued political maneuvering
supported by competing factions in the military eventually brought
Arab nationalist and socialist elements to power.
Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954
coup, the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and the
appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser's leadership in
the wake of the 1956 Suez crisis created support in Syria for
union with Egypt. On February 1, 1958, the two countries merged
to create the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties
ceased overt activities.
The union was not a success, however. Following a military coup
on September 28, 1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as
the Syrian Arab Republic. Instability characterized the next 18
months, with various coups culminating on March 8, 1963, in the
installation by leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council
of the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian
officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative
authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab
Socialist Resurrection Party (Ba'ath Party), which had been active
in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new
cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.
The Ba'ath takeover in Syria followed a Ba'ath coup in Iraq the
previous month. The new Syrian Government explored the possibility
of federation with Egypt and Ba'ath--controlled Iraq. An agreement
was concluded in Cairo on April 17, 1963, for a referendum on
unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements
among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation
failed to materialize. Thereafter, the Ba'ath regimes in Syria
and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity. These plans foundered
in November 1963, when the Ba'ath regime in Iraq was overthrown.
In May 1964, President Amin Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional
constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution
(NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of
mass organizations--labor, peasant, and professional unions--a
presidential council, in which executive power was vested, and
a cabinet. On February 23, 1966, a group of army officers carried
out a successful, intra-party coup, imprisoned President Hafiz,
dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution,
and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government. The
coup leaders described it as a "rectification" of Ba'ath
Party principles. The defeat of the Syrians and Egyptians in the
June 1967 war with Israel weakened the radical socialist regime
established by the 1966 coup. Conflict developed between a moderate
military wing and a more extremist civilian wing of the Ba'ath
Party. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during
the "Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected
this political disagreement within the ruling Ba'ath leadership.
On November 13, 1970, Minister of Defense Hafiz al-Asad affected
a bloodless military coup, ousting the civilian party leadership
and assuming the role of prime minister.
1970 to 2000
Upon assuming power, Hafiz al-Asad moved quickly to create an
organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate
control. The Provisional Regional Command of Asad's Arab Ba'ath
Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's
Council, in which the Ba'ath Party took 87 seats. The remaining
seats were divided among "popular organizations" and
other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional
congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by
Asad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm
Asad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden
the base of his government, Asad formed the National Progressive
Front, a coalition of parties led by the Ba'ath Party, and elections
were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates.
In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed
shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's
Council, the first such elections since 1962.
The authoritarian regime was not without its critics, though
most were quickly dealt with. A serious challenge arose in the
late 1970s, however, from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who reject
the basic values of the secular Ba'ath program and object to rule
by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its
suppression in 1982, the archconservative Muslim Brotherhood led
an armed insurgency against the regime. In response to an attempted
uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government crushed
the fundamentalist opposition centered in the city of Hama, leveling
parts of the city with artillery fire and causing many thousands
of dead and wounded. Since then, public manifestations of anti-regime
activity have been very limited.
Syria's 1990 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition
aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in
Syria's relations both with other Arab states and with the West.
Syria participated in the multilateral Middle East Peace Conference
in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct,
face-to-face negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed,
and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President
Hafiz Al-Asad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva
in March 2000.
Hafiz Al-Asad died on June 10, 2000, after 30 years in power.
Immediately following Al-Asad's death, the Parliament amended
the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President
from 40 to 34 years old, which allowed his son, Bashar Al-Asad
legally to be eligible for nomination by the ruling Ba'ath party.
On July 10, 2000, Bashar Al-Asad was elected President by referendum
in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote, according
to Syrian Government statistics.
2000 to 2005
In the aftermath of September 11, 2001 the Syrian Government began
limited cooperation with U.S. in the global war against terrorism.
However, Syria opposed the Iraq war in March 2003, and bilateral
relations with the U.S. swiftly deteriorated. In December 2003,
President Bush signed into law the Syria Accountability and Lebanese
Sovereignty Restoration Act of 2003, which provided for the imposition
of a series of sanctions against Syria if Syria did not end its
support for Palestinian terrorist groups, end its military and
security presence in Lebanon, cease its pursuit of weapons of
mass destruction, and meet its obligations under United Nations
Security Council resolutions regarding the stabilization and reconstruction
of Iraq. In May 2004, the President determined that Syria had
not met these conditions and implemented sanctions that prohibit
the export to Syria of items on the U.S. Munitions List and Commerce
Control List, the export to Syria of U.S. products except for
food and medicine, and the taking off from or landing in the United
States of Syrian Government-owned aircraft. At the same time,
the U.S. Department of the Treasury announced its intention to
order U.S. financial institutions to sever correspondent accounts
with the Commercial Bank of Syria based on money-laundering concerns,
pursuant to Section 311 of the USA PATRIOT Act. Acting under the
International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), the President
also authorized the Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation
with the Secretary of State, to freeze assets belonging to certain
Syrian individuals and government entities.
Tensions between Syria and the U.S. intensified in late 2004
and 2005, primarily over issues relating to Iraq and Lebanon.
The U.S. Government recalled its Ambassador in February 2005,
after the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Hariri and
she had not returned as of October. Sensing its international
isolation, the Syrians shored up their relations with Iran and
radical Palestinians groups based in Damascus, and cracked down
on any signs of internal dissent. There has been little sign of
movement on economic or political reform. The SARG provided minimal
cooperation to the UN Independent International Investigation
Commission, headed by Detlev Mehlis, which investigated the killing
of Hariri.
GOVERNMENT
The Syrian constitution vests the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party
with leadership functions in the state and society and provides
broad powers to the president. The president, approved by referendum
for a 7-year term, also is Secretary General of the Ba'ath Party
and leader of the National Progressive Front. The president has
the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and states of emergency,
to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require
ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to
amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military
personnel. The Emergency Law, which effectively suspends most
constitutional protections for Syrians, has been in effect since
1963,
The National Progressive Front also acts as a forum in which
economic policies are debated and the country's political orientation
is determined. However, because of Ba'ath Party dominance, the
National Progressive Front has traditionally exercised little
independent power.
The Syrian constitution of 1973 requires that the president be
Muslim but does not make Islam the state religion. Islamic jurisprudence,
however, is required to be a main source of legislation. The judicial
system in Syria is an amalgam of Ottoman, French, and Islamic
laws, with three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts
of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal.
In addition, religious courts handle questions of personal and
family law.
The Ba'ath Party emphasizes socialism and secular Arabism. Although
Ba'ath Party doctrine seeks to build pan-Arab rather than ethnic
identity, ethnic, religious, and regional allegiances remain important
in Syria.
Members of President Asad's own minority sect, the Alawis, hold
most of the important military and security positions, while Sunnis
in 2005 control ten of 14 positions on the powerful Ba’ath
Party Regional Command. In recent years there has been a gradual
decline in the party's preeminence. The party also is heavily
influenced by the security services and the military, the latter
of which consumes a large share of Syria's economic resources.
Syria is divided administratively into 14 provinces, one of which
is Damascus. A governor for each province is appointed by the
President. The governor is assisted by an elected provincial council.
Principal Government Officials
President--Bashar Al-Asad
Vice President--vacant
Vice President--Muhammad Zuhayr Mashariqa
Prime Minister--Muhammad Naji Utri
Minister of Foreign Affairs--Farouk Al-Shara'
Ambassador to the United States--Ambassador Imad Moustapha
Ambassador to the United Nations--Ambassador Faisal Miqdad
Syria maintains an embassy in the United States at 2215 Wyoming
Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-232-6313; fax: 202-234-9548).
Consular section hours are 10:00 a.m.-2:00 p.m., Monday-Friday.
Syria also has an honorary consul at 5433 Westheimer Rd., Suite
1020, Houston, TX 77056 (tel. 713-622-8860; fax. 713-965-9632).
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Officially, Syria is a republic. In reality, however, it is an
authoritarian regime that exhibits only the forms of a democratic
system. Although citizens ostensibly vote for the President and
members of Parliament, they do not have the right to change their
government. The late President Hafiz Al-Asad was confirmed by
unopposed referenda five times. His son, Bashar Al-Asad, also
was confirmed by an unopposed referendum in July 2000. The President
and his senior aides, particularly those in the military and security
services, ultimately make most basic decisions in political and
economic life, with a very limited degree of public accountability.
Political opposition to the President is not tolerated. Syria
has been under a state of emergency since 1963. Syrian governments
have justified martial law by the state of war, which continues
to exist with Israel and by continuing threats posed by terrorist
groups.
The Asad regime (little has changed since Bashar Al-Asad succeeded
his father) has held power longer than any other Syrian government
since independence; its survival is due partly to a strong desire
for stability and the regime's success in giving groups such as
religious minorities and peasant farmers a stake in society. The
expansion of the government bureaucracy has also created a large
class loyal to the regime. The President's continuing strength
is due also to the army's continued loyalty and the effectiveness
of Syria's large internal security apparatus. The leadership of
both is comprised largely of members of Asad's own Alawi sect.
The several main branches of the security services operate independently
of each other and outside of the legal system. Each continues
to be responsible for human rights violations.
All three branches of government are guided by the views of the
Ba'ath Party, whose primacy in state institutions is assured by
the constitution. The Ba'ath platform is proclaimed succinctly
in the party's slogan: "Unity, freedom, and socialism."
The party has traditionally been considered both socialist, advocating
state ownership of the means of industrial production and the
redistribution of agricultural land, and revolutionary, dedicated
to carrying a socialist revolution to every part of the Arab world.
Founded by Michel 'Aflaq, a Syrian Christian and Salah al-Din
Al-Bitar, a Syrian Sunni, the Ba'ath Party embraces secularism
and has attracted supporters of all faiths in many Arab countries,
especially Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon. Since August 1990, however,
the party has tended to de-emphasize socialism and to stress both
pan-Arab unity and the need for gradual economic reform of the
Syrian economy.
Nine smaller political parties are permitted to exist and, along
with the Ba'ath Party, make up the National Progressive Front
(NPF), a grouping of parties that represents the sole framework
of legal political party participation for citizens. While created
ostensibly to give the appearance of a multi-party system, the
NPF is dominated by the Ba'ath Party and does not change the essentially
one-party character of the political system. Non-Ba'ath parties
included in the NPF represent small political groupings of a few
hundred members each and conform strictly to Ba'ath Party and
government policies. There were reports in 2005, in the wake of
the June Ba’ath Party Congress, that the government was
considering legislation to permit the formation of new political
parties and the legalization of parties that previously banned.
These changes have not taken place. In addition, some 15 small
independent parties outside the NPF operate without government
sanction.
The Ba'ath Party dominates the Parliament, which is known as
the People's Council. With members elected every 4 years, the
Council has no independent authority. Although parliamentarians
may criticize policies and modify draft laws, they cannot initiate
laws, and the executive branch retains ultimate control over the
legislative process. During 2001, two independent members of Parliament,
Ma’mun al-Humsy and Riad Seif, who had advocated political
reforms, were stripped of their parliamentary immunity and tried
and convicted of charges of "attempting to illegally change
the constitution." They remained in prison as of 2005. The
government has allowed independent non-NPF candidates to run for
a limited allotment of seats in the 250-member People's Council.
The current allotment of non-NPF deputies is 83, ensuring a permanent
absolute majority for the Ba'ath Party-dominated NPF. Elections
for the 250 seats in the People's Council last took place in 2003.
There was a surge of interest in political reform after Bashar
al-Asad assumed power in 2000. Human rights activists and other
civil society advocates, as well as some Parliamentarians, became
more outspoken during a period referred to as "Damascus Spring"
(July 2000-February 2001). Asad also made a series of appointments
of reform-minded advisors to formal and less formal positions,
and included a number of similarly oriented individuals in his
Cabinet. The 2001 arrest and long-term detention of the two reformist
Parliamentarians and the apparent marginalizing of some of the
reformist advisors in the past four years, indicate that the pace
of any political reform in Syria is likely to be much slower than
the short-lived Damascus Spring promised. A crackdown on civil
society in 2005, in the wake of Syria’s withdrawal from
Lebanon, reinforced the perception that any steps towards political
form were likely to be halting and piecemeal at best.
ECONOMY
Syria is a middle-income, developing country with an economy based
primarily on agriculture and energy. However, Syria's economy
faces serious challenges and impediments to growth, including:
a large and poorly performing public sector; declining rates of
oil production; emerging trade deficit; wide scale corruption;
weak financial and capital markets; and high rates of unemployment
tied to a high population growth rate. In addition, Syria currently
is the subject of U.S. economic sanctions under the Syria Accountability
Act, which prohibits the export and re-export of most U.S. products
to Syria.
As a result of internal economic policies and external pressure,
Syria has low rates of investment, and low levels of industrial
and agricultural productivity. Consequently, its GDP growth rate
was approximately 1.7% in 2004, according to official government
statistics. The two main pillars of the Syrian economy have been
agriculture and oil. Agriculture, for instance, accounts for 25%
of GDP and employs 17% of the total labor force. The government
hopes to attract new investment in the tourism, gas, banking,
and insurance sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its
dependence on oil and agriculture. The government has begun to
institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets,
but reform thus far has been slow and ad hoc. For ideological
reasons, privatization of government enterprises is explicitly
rejected. Therefore major sectors of the economy including petroleum,
ports operation, air transportation, power generation, and water
distribution, remain firmly controlled by the government.
The Bashar al-Asad government started its reform efforts by changing
the regulatory environment in the financial sector. In 2001, Syria
legalized private banking and in 2004, three private banks began
operations. A fourth will open its doors in October 2005. Two
more private banks are expected to begin operation by the end
of 2006. Controls on foreign exchange continue to be one of the
biggest impediments to the growth of the banking sector, although
Syria has taken gradual steps to loosen those controls. In 2003,
the government canceled a law that criminalized private sector
use of foreign currencies, and in 2005 it issued legislation that
allows licensed private banks to sell foreign currencies to Syrian
citizens and to the private sector to finance imports. Syria’s
exchange rate is fixed, and the government maintains two official
rates- one rate on which the budget and the value of imports,
customs, and other official transactions are based, and a second
set by the Central Bank on a daily basis that covers all other
financial transactions. There is, however, still an active black
market for foreign currency.
Given the policies adopted from the 1960s through the late 1980s,
which included nationalization of companies and private assets,
Syria failed to join an increasingly interconnected global economy.
Syria withdrew from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) in 1951 because of Israel's accession. It is not a member
of the WTO, although it submitted a request to begin the accession
process in 2001. Syria is developing regional free trade agreements.
As of January 1, 2005, the Greater Arab Free Trade Agreement (GAFTA)
came into effect and customs duties were eliminated between Syria
and all other members of GAFTA. In addition, Syria has signed
a free trade agreement with Turkey and initialed an Association
Agreement with the EU. Until 2003, Syria’s balance of trade
was in surplus. However, 2004 trade statistics indicate that total
exports amounted to $4.98 billion against imports of $6.55 billion,
and many experts believe that the deficit will grow as Syria opens
its markets to foreign goods and its rate of oil production continues
to decline. Syria’s main exports include crude oil, refined
products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of
Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles,
agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil
exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's
most important sources of foreign exchange.
Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the
northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade,
low-sulphur oil was discovered near Dayr az Zawr in eastern Syria.
Syria’s rate of oil production has been decreasing steadily,
from a peak close to 600,000 barrels per day (bpd) in 1995 down
to approximately 450,000 bpd in 2004. Experts generally agree
that Syria will become a net importer of petroleum not later than
2012. Syria exported roughly 195,000 bpd in 2004, and oil still
accounts for a majority of the country's export income. Syria
also produces 245 billion cubic feet per day of natural gas, with
estimated reserves around 8.5 trillion cubic feet. While the government
has begun to work with international energy companies in the hopes
of eventually becoming a gas exporter, all gas currently produced
is consumed domestically.
Some basic commodities, such as diesel, continue to be heavily
subsidized, and social services are provided for nominal charges.
The subsidies are becoming harder to sustain as the population
continues to grow faster than GDP. Syria has a population of approximately
18 million people, and official figures place the population growth
rate at 2.58%, with 75% of the population under the age of 35
and more than 40% under the age of 15. Approximately 250,000 people
enter the labor market every year. According to official statistics,
the unemployment rate is 10.8%. However, more accurate independent
sources place it over 20%. Government and public sector employees
constitute over one quarter of the total labor force and are paid
very low salaries and wages. Government officials acknowledge
that the economy is not growing at a pace sufficient to create
enough new jobs annually to match population growth. The UNDP
announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty
and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.
Syria has made progress in easing its heavy foreign debt burden
through bilateral rescheduling deals with the majority of its
key creditors in Europe, most importantly Germany and France.
Syria has also settled its debt with Iran and the World Bank.
In December 2004, Syria and Poland reached an agreement by which
Syria would pay $27 million only out of the total $261.7 million
debt In January 2005, Russia forgave 80% of Syria’s $13
billion long-outstanding debt, and later that year Syria reached
an agreement with Slovakia, and the Czech Republic to settle debt
estimated at $1.6 billion. Again Syria was forgiven the bulk of
its debt, in exchange for a one time payment of $150 million.
Currently, Syria’s foreign debt is estimated at about $3
billion owed, Bulgaria and Romania being the largest debt holders,
requiring a debt service of about $650 million per year.
NATIONAL SECURITY
President Bashar Al-Asad is commander in chief of the Syrian armed
forces, comprising some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The
military is a conscripted force; males serve 24 months in the
military upon reaching the age of 18. Some 17,000 Syrian soldiers
formerly deployed in Lebanon have been withdrawn to Syria in response
to UNSCR 1559, which was passed in the fall of 2004. Demands that
Syria comply with 1559 intensified after the February 2005 assassination
of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri.
Syria’s military remains one of the largest in the region,
although the breakup of the Soviet Union--long the principal source
of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces--slowed
Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. Syria received
significant financial aid from Gulf Arab states in the 1990s as
a result of its participation in the first Gulf War, with a sizable
portion of these funds earmarked for military spending. Besides
sustaining its conventional forces, Syria seeks to develop its
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) capability.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab
neighbors, and achieving a comprehensive Arab-Israeli peace settlement,
which includes the return of the Golan Heights, are the primary
goals of President Asad's foreign policy.
Relations With Other Arab Countries
Syria reestablished full diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1989.
In the 1990-91 Gulf War, Syria joined other Arab states in the
U.S.-led multinational coalition against Iraq. In 1998, Syria
began a slow rapprochement with Iraq, driven primarily by economic
needs. Syria continues to play an active pan-Arab role, although
in the wake of the Hariri assassination, Syria became more isolated
diplomatically, both in the region and beyond.
Though it voted in favor of UNSCR 1441 in 2002, Syria was against
coalition military action in Iraq in 2003. However, the Syrian
Government accepted UNSCR 1483 (after being absent for the actual
vote), which lifted sanctions on Iraq and established a framework
to assist the Iraqi people in determining their political future
and rebuilding their economy. Syria also voted for UNSCR 1511,
which called for greater international involvement in Iraq and
addressed the transfer of sovereignty from the U.S.-led coalition.
Since the transfer of sovereignty in Iraq on June 28, 2004, Syria
extended qualified support to the Interim Iraqi Government and
pledged to cooperate in the areas of border security, repatriation
of Iraqi assets, and eventual restoration of formal diplomatic
relations. While Syria has taken some steps to tighten controls
along the Syria-Iraq border, Syria remains one of the primary
transit points for foreign fighters entering Iraq. Consequently,
relations between Syria and the Iraqi Transitional Government
have been strained; formal diplomatic relations have not yet been
re-established. Iraq continues to call for more action on the
part of Syria to control its border and to prevent Iraqi and Arab
elements residing in--or transiting--Syria from contributing financially,
politically, or militarily to the insurgency in Iraq.
Involvement in Lebanon
Syria has played an important role in Lebanon by virtue of its
history, size, power, and economy. Lebanon was part of post-Ottoman
Syria until 1926. The presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon dated
to 1976, when President Hafiz al-Asad intervened in the Lebanese
civil war on behalf of Maronite Christians. Following the 1982
Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Syrian and Israeli forces clashed
in eastern Lebanon. However, Syrian opposition blocked implementation
of the May 17, 1983, Lebanese-Israeli accord on the withdrawal
of Israeli forces from Lebanon.
In 1989, Syria endorsed the Charter of National Reconciliation,
or "Taif Accord," a comprehensive plan for ending the
Lebanese conflict negotiated under the auspices of Saudi Arabia,
Algeria, and Morocco. In May 1991, Lebanon and Syria signed the
treaty of brotherhood, cooperation, and coordination called for
in the Taif Accord.
According to the U.S. interpretation of the Taif Accord, Syria
and Lebanon were to have decided on the redeployment of Syrian
forces from Beirut and other coastal areas of Lebanon by September
1992. Israeli occupation of Lebanon until May 2000, the breakdown
of peace negotiations between Syria and Israel that same year,
and intensifying Arab/Israeli tensions since the start of the
second Palestinian uprising in September 2000 helped delay full
implementation of the Taif Accords. The United Nations declared
that Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon fulfilled the requirements
of UN Security Council Resolution 425. However, Syria and Lebanon
claimed that UNSCR 425 had not been fully implemented because
Israel did not withdraw from an area of the Golan Heights called
Sheba Farms, which had been occupied by Israel in 1967, and which
Syria now claimed was part of Lebanon. The United Nations does
not recognize this claim. However, Lebanese resistance groups
such as Hizballah use it to justify attacks against Israeli forces
in that region, creating a potentially dangerous flashpoint along
the Lebanon-Israeli border. The UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL)
maintains about 2,000 troops in southern Lebanon tasked with ensuring
peace and security along the frontier and overseeing the eventual
return of effective Lebanese government and military authority
throughout the border region.
Until its withdrawal in April 2005, Syria maintained approximately
17,000 troops in Lebanon. A September 2004 vote by Lebanon’s
Chamber of Deputies to amend the constitution to extend Lebanese
President Lahoud's term in office by 3 years amplified the question
of Lebanese sovereignty and the continuing Syrian presence. The
vote was clearly taken under Syrian pressure, exercised in part
through Syria's military intelligence service, whose chief in
Lebanon had acted as a virtual proconsul for many years. The UN
Security Council expressed its concern over the situation by passing
Resolution 1559, which called for the withdrawal of all remaining
foreign forces from Lebanon, disbanding and disarmament of all
Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias, the deployment of the Lebanese
Armed Forces throughout the country, and a free and fair electoral
process in the presidential election.
Former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri and 19 others were assassinated
in Beirut by a car bomb on February 14, 2005. The assassination
spurred massive protests in Beirut and international pressure
that led to the withdrawal of the remaining Syrian military troops
from Lebanon on April 26. The UN International Independent Investigative
Commission (UNIIIC) headed by Detlev Mehlis investigated Hariri’s
assassination and was expected to report its findings to the Security
Council in late October 2005.
The U.S. supports a sovereign, independent Lebanon, free of all
foreign forces, and believes that the best interests of both Lebanon
and Syria are served by a positive and constructive relationship
based upon principles of mutual respect and non-intervention between
two neighboring sovereign and independent states. The U.S. calls
for Syrian non-interference in Lebanon, consistent with UNSCR
1559.
Arab-Israeli Relations
Syria was an active belligerent in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War,
which resulted in Israel's occupation of the Golan Heights and
the city of Quneitra. Following the October 1973 Arab-Israeli
War, which left Israel in occupation of additional Syrian territory,
Syria accepted UN Security Council Resolution 338, which signaled
an implicit acceptance of Resolution 242. Resolution 242, which
became the basis for the peace process negotiations begun in Madrid,
calls for a just and lasting Middle East peace to include withdrawal
of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in 1967; termination
of the state of belligerency; and acknowledgment of the sovereignty,
territorial integrity, and political independence of all regional
states and of their right to live in peace within secure and recognized
boundaries.
As a result of the mediation efforts of then U.S. Secretary of
State Henry Kissinger, Syria and Israel concluded a disengagement
agreement in May 1974, enabling Syria to recover territory lost
in the October war and part of the Golan Heights occupied by Israel
since 1967, including Quneitra. The two sides have effectively
implemented the agreement, which is monitored by UN forces.
In December 1981, the Israeli Knesset voted to extend Israeli
law to the part of the Golan Heights over which Israel retained
control. The UN Security Council subsequently passed a resolution
calling on Israel to rescind this measure. Syria participated
in the Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991.
Negotiations were conducted intermittently through the 1990s,
and came very close to succeeding. However, the parties were unable
to come to an agreement over Syria's nonnegotiable demand that
Israel withdraw to the positions it held on June 4, 1967. The
peace process collapsed following the outbreak of the second Palestinian
(Intifada) uprising in September 2000, though Syria continues
to call for a comprehensive settlement based on UN Security Council
Resolutions 242 and 338, and the land-for-peace formula adopted
at the 1991 Madrid conference.
Tensions between Israel and Syria increased as the second Intifada
dragged on, primarily as a result of Syria's unwillingness to
stop giving sanctuary to Palestinian terrorist groups conducting
operations against Israel. In October 2003, following a suicide
bombing carried out by a member of Palestinian Islamic Jihad in
Haifa that killed 20 Israeli citizens, Israeli Defense Forces
attacked a suspected Palestinian terrorist training camp 15 kilometers
north of Damascus. This was the first such Israeli attack deep
inside Syrian territory since the 1973 war.
Membership in International Organizations
Syria is a member of the Arab Bank for Economic Development in
Africa, Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Arab League,
Arab Monetary Fund, Council of Arab Economic Unity, Customs Cooperation
Council, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Food
and Agricultural Organization, Group of 24, Group of 77, International
Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International
Chamber of Commerce, International Development Association, Islamic
Development Bank, International Fund for Agricultural Development,
International Finance Corporation, International Labor Organization,
International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization,
INTERPOL, International Olympic Committee, International Organization
for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Non-Aligned
Movement, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries,
Organization of the Islamic Conference, United Nations, UN Conference
on Trade and Development, UN Industrial Development Organization,
UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near
East, Universal Postal Union, World Federation of Trade Unions,
World Health Organization, World Meteorological Organization,
and World Tourism Organization.
Syria's 2-year term as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security
Council ended in December 2003.
U.S.-SYRIAN RELATIONS
U.S.-Syrian relations, severed in 1967, were resumed in June 1974,
following the achievement of the Syrian-Israeli disengagement
agreement. In 1990-91, Syria cooperated with the U.S. as a member
of the multinational coalition of forces in the Gulf War. The
U.S. and Syria also consulted closely on the Taif Accord, ending
the civil war in Lebanon. In 1991, President Asad made a historic
decision to accept then President Bush's invitation to attend
a Middle East peace conference and to engage in subsequent bilateral
negotiations with Israel. Syria's efforts to secure the release
of Western hostages held in Lebanon and its lifting of restrictions
on travel by Syrian Jews helped further to improve relations between
Syria and the United States. There were several presidential summits;
the last one occurred when then-President Clinton met the late
President Hafiz al-Asad in Geneva in March 2000. In the aftermath
of September 11 the Syrian Government began limited cooperation
with U.S. in the war against terror.
Syria has been on the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism
since the list's inception in 1979. Because of its continuing
support and safe haven for terrorist organizations, Syria is subject
to legislatively mandated penalties, including export sanctions
and ineligibility to receive most forms of U.S. aid or to purchase
U.S. military equipment. In 1986, the U.S. withdrew its ambassador
and imposed additional administrative sanctions on Syria in response
to evidence of direct Syrian involvement in an attempt to blow
up an Israeli airplane. A U.S. ambassador returned to Damascus
in 1987, partially in response to positive Syrian actions against
terrorism such as expelling the Abu Nidal Organization from Syria
and helping free an American hostage earlier that year.
However, relations since the February 2005 assassination of former
Lebanese Prime Minister Hariri have considerably deteriorated.
Issues of U.S. concern include the Syrian Government’s failure
to prevent Syria from becoming a major transit point for foreign
fighters entering Iraq, its refusal to deport from Syria former
Saddam regime elements who are supporting the insurgency in Iraq,
its ongoing interference in Lebanese affairs, its protection of
the leadership of Palestinian rejectionist groups in Damascus,
its deplorable human rights record, and its pursuit of weapons
of mass destruction. In May 2004, the Bush administration, pursuant
to the provisions of the Syrian Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty
Restoration Act, imposed sanctions on Syria. In February 2005,
in the wake of the Hariri assassination, the U.S. recalled its
Ambassador to Washington for consultations. (As of fall 2005,
the Ambassador has not returned to Damascus.)
Principal U.S. Officials
Ambassador--Margaret Scobey (currently in Washington on consultations)
Deputy Chief of Mission (Charge d’Affaires)--Stephen Seche
Head of the Political Section--William Roebuck
Head of the Economic/Commercial Section--Todd Holmstrom
Head of the Consular Section--Patricia Fietz
Management Counselor--Kathy Johnson-Casares
Public Affairs Officer--Chris Eccel
Defense Attaché--Col. Norman Larson
The U.S. Embassy is located at Abu Roumaneh, Al-Mansur St. No.
2; P.O. Box 29; Tel. (963)(11) 3331342, 3333232 (after hours);
Public Affairs Section Tel: 3331878, 3338413, 3311280; telex 411919
USDAMA SY; FAX (963)(11) 2247938. More information about embassy
hours of operation, and consular and American citizen services
can be obtained at the embassy's website: http://damascus.usembassy.gov/
TRAVEL AND BUSINESS INFORMATION
The U.S. Department of State's Consular Information Program provides
Consular Information Sheets, Travel Warnings, and Public Announcements.
Consular Information Sheets exist for all countries and include
information on entry requirements, currency regulations, health
conditions, areas of instability, crime and security, political
disturbances, and the addresses of the U.S. posts in the country.
Travel Warnings are issued when the State Department recommends
that Americans avoid travel to a certain country. Public Announcements
are issued as a means to disseminate information quickly about
terrorist threats and other relatively short-term conditions overseas
that pose significant risks to the security of American travelers.
Free copies of this information are available by calling the Bureau
of Consular Affairs at 202-647-5225 or via the fax-on-demand system:
202-647-3000. Consular Information Sheets and Travel Warnings
also are available on the Consular Affairs Internet home page:
http://travel.state.gov. Consular Affairs Tips for Travelers publication
series, which contain information on obtaining passports and planning
a safe trip abroad, are on the Internet and hard copies can be
purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, telephone: 202-512-1800; fax 202-512-2250.
Emergency information concerning Americans traveling abroad may
be obtained from the Office of Overseas Citizens Services at (202)
647-5225. For after-hours emergencies, Sundays and holidays, call
202-647-4000.
The National Passport Information Center (NPIC) is the U.S. Department
of State's single, centralized public contact center for U.S.
passport information. Telephone: 1-877-4USA-PPT (1-877-487-2778).
Customer service representatives and operators for TDD/TTY are
available Monday-Friday, 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m., Eastern Time,
excluding federal holidays.
Travelers can check the latest health information with the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia.
A hotline at 877-FYI-TRIP (877-394-8747) and a web site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/index.htm
give the most recent health advisories, immunization recommendations
or requirements, and advice on food and drinking water safety
for regions and countries. A booklet entitled Health Information
for International Travel (HHS publication number CDC-95-8280)
is available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC 20402, tel. (202) 512-1800.
Information on travel conditions, visa requirements, currency
and customs regulations, legal holidays, and other items of interest
to travelers also may be obtained before your departure from a
country's embassy and/or consulates in the U.S. (for this country,
see "Principal Government Officials" listing in this
publication).
U.S. citizens who are long-term visitors or traveling in dangerous
areas are encouraged to register their travel via the State Department’s
travel registration web site at https://travelregistration.state.gov
or at the Consular section of the U.S. embassy upon arrival in
a country by filling out a short form and sending in a copy of
their passports. This may help family members contact you in case
of an emergency.
Further Electronic Information
Department of State Web Site. Available on the Internet at http://www.state.gov,
the Department of State web site provides timely, global access
to official U.S. foreign policy information, including Background
Notes and daily press briefings along with the directory of key
officers of Foreign Service posts and more.
Export.gov provides a portal to all export-related assistance
and market information offered by the federal government and provides
trade leads, free export counseling, help with the export process,
and more.
STAT-USA/Internet, a service of the U.S. Department of Commerce,
provides authoritative economic, business, and international trade
information from the Federal government. The site includes current
and historical trade-related releases, international market research,
trade opportunities, and country analysis and provides access
to the National Trade Data Bank.
